Skip directly to site content Skip directly to page options Skip directly to A-Z link Skip directly to A-Z link Skip directly to A-Z link
Volume 16, Number 11—November 2010
Research

Genetic Structure of Plasmodium falciparum and Elimination of Malaria, Comoros Archipelago

Stanislas Rebaudet1, Hervé Bogreau1, Rahamatou Silaï, Jean-François Lepère, Lionel Bertaux, Bruno Pradines, Jean Delmont, Philippe Gautret, Philippe Parola, and Christophe RogierComments to Author 
Author affiliations: Institute for Biomedical Research of the French Army, Marseille, France (S. Rebaudet, H. Bogreau, L. Bertaux, B. Pradines, C. Rogier); Université de la Méditerranée, Marseille (J. Delmont, P. Parola); Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Marseille, Marseille (P. Gautret); Programme National de Lutte contre le Paludisme, Moroni, Comoros (R. Silaï); Dispensaire de Bandraboua, Mayotte, France (J.-F. Lepère); 1These authors contributed equally to this article.

Main Article

Table 1

Epidemiologic and sampling characteristics of 5 sites studied for Plasmodium falciparum malaria, Comoros archipelago and Marseille, France

Characteristic Grande Comore Moheli Anjouan Mayotte Marseille
Area, km2 1,148 290 424 374
Total population 330,000 40,000 280,000 190,000 50,000–80,000
No. bites by infected mosquitoes/person* 10–20/y (up to 200/y) 10/y (up to 1/night) No data Low None
Endemicity*†
Mesoendemic to hyperendemic
Mesoendemic to hyperendemic
Mesoendemic to hyperendemic
Hypoendemic
None
Total no. reported cases (% confirmed cases), 2006* 51,148 (34) 7,866 (27) 15,408 (19) 496 (100) 84 (100)
Incidence/1,000 inhabitants, 2006* 150 150 50 3 Null
% P. falciparum malaria cases,* 2006
96
96
96
90
97
Period of sampling, 2007 Apr–May Apr–May Apr–May Entire year Entire year
No. patients sampled, 2007
62
61
63
227
111
Median age of sampled patients, y (IQR) ‡ 4 (2–14.8) 7.5 (2.6–21) 7 (3.3–18) 19 (15–25) 33 (9.8–40)
No. sampled patients in site (A) with history of recent arrival from another site (B) 7 17 6 13 111§
Anjouan 6 9 7
Grande Comore 8 5 6
Mayotte 1 1 0
Moheli
0

2
0

No. randomly genotyped isolates 36 36 36 36 36

*Data from World Malaria Report 2008 (8) and from various Comorian and French official reports and references published in French, all reviewed by the first author in a recent, unpublished thesis (Rebaudet S. Molecular epidemiology and population genetics study of Plasmodium falciparum in Comoros archipelago. Impacts on malaria control [thesis] [in French]. Marseille (France): Université de la Méditerranée; 2009). Cases for Marseille represent those in persons with history of recent arrival from one of the 4 islands.
†Malaria endemicity levels based on 2–9 years of available parasite prevalence data, according to the World Health Organization classification: hypoendemic, 0–10%; mesoendemic, 11%–50%; hyperendemic, 51%–75%; and holoendemic, >75% (9).
‡IQR, interquartile range.
§Mainly from Grande Comore (S. Rebaudet, pers. comm.).

Main Article

References
  1. Roll Back Malaria Partnership. The global malaria action plan, for a malaria-free world. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008 [cited 2010 Sep 5]. http://www.rollbackmalaria.org/gmap/index.html
  2. World Health Organization. World malaria report 2009. Geneva: The Organization; 2009 [cited 2010 Sep 5]. http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/9789241563901/en/index.html
  3. Rogier  C, Pradines  B, Bogreau  H, Koeck  JL, Kamil  MA, Mercereau-Puijalon  O. Malaria epidemic and drug resistance, Djibouti. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11:31721.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. Bogreau  H, Renaud  F, Bouchiba  H, Durand  P, Assi  SB, Henry  MC, Genetic diversity and structure of African Plasmodium falciparum populations in urban and rural areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006;74:9539.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. Anderson  TJ, Haubold  B, Williams  JT, Estrada-Franco  JG, Richardson  L, Mollinedo  R, Microsatellite markers reveal a spectrum of population structures in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biol Evol. 2000;17:146782.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  6. Pumpaibool  T, Arnathau  C, Durand  P, Kanchanakhan  N, Siripoon  N, Suegorn  A, Genetic diversity and population structure of Plasmodium falciparum in Thailand, a low transmission country. Malar J. 2009;8:155. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  7. Quatresous  I, Pettinelli  F, Le Bras  J, Solet  JL, Lepère  JF, Giry  C, What do we know about malaria resistance in Mayotte, France, in 2007? [in French]. Bulletin Epidémiologique Hebdomadaire. 2007;48–49:40912.
  8. World Health Organization. World malaria report 2008. Geneva: The Organization; 2008 [cited 2010 Sep 5]. http://malaria.who.int/wmr2008/malaria2008.pdf
  9. World Health Organization. Malaria control and elimination: report of a technical review. Geneva: The Organization; 2008 [cited 2010 Sep 5]. http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/9789241596756/en/index.html
  10. Silai  R, Moussa  M, Abdalli Mari  M, Astafieva-Djaza  M, Hafidhou  M, Oumadi  A, Surveillance of falciparum malaria susceptibility to antimalarial drugs and policy change in the Comoros [in French]. Bull Soc Pathol Exot. 2007;100:69. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. Parola  P, Pradines  B, Simon  F, Carlotti  MP, Minodier  P, Ranjeva  MP, Antimalarial drug susceptibility and point mutations associated with drug resistance in 248 Plasmodium falciparum isolates imported from Comoros to Marseille, France, 2004–2006. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;77:4317.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. Anthony  TG, Conway  DJ, Cox-Singh  J, Matusop  A, Ratnam  S, Shamsul  S, Fragmented population structure of Plasmodium falciparum in a region of declining endemicity. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:155864. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. Iwagami  M, Rivera  PT, Villacorte  EA, Escueta  AD, Hatabu  T, Kawazu  S, Genetic diversity and population structure of Plasmodium falciparum in the Philippines. Malar J. 2009;8:96. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. Djimde  A, Doumbo  OK, Cortese  JF, Kayentao  K, Doumbo  S, Diourte  Y, A molecular marker for chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:25763. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. Kublin  JG, Dzinjalamala  FK, Kamwendo  DD, Malkin  EM, Cortese  JF, Martino  LM, Molecular markers for failure of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine and chlorproguanil-dapsone treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Infect Dis. 2002;185:3808. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. Anderson  TJ, Nair  S, Jacobzone  C, Zavai  A, Balkan  S. Molecular assessment of drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum from Bahr El Gazal province, Sudan. Trop Med Int Health. 2003;8:106873. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. Nair  S, Brockman  A, Paiphun  L, Nosten  F, Anderson  TJ. Rapid genotyping of loci involved in antifolate drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum by primer extension. Int J Parasitol. 2002;32:8528. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. Nei  M. Estimation of average heterozygosity and genetic distance from a small number of individuals. Genetics. 1978;89:58390.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. Belkhir  K, Borsa  P, Chikhi  L, Raufaste  L, Bonhomme  F. GENETIX 4.05, Windows software for population genetics (author’s translation) [in French]. Montpellier, France: Laboratoire Génome, Populations, Interactions, CNRS UMR 5000, Université de Montpellier II; 1996–2004 [cited 2010 Sep 5]. http://www.genetix.univ-montp2.fr/genetix/genetix.htm
  20. Goudet  J. FSTAT (version 2.9.3.2), a program to estimate and test population genetics parameters; 2002 [cited 2010 Sep 5]. http://www2.unil.ch/popgen/softwares/fstat.htm
  21. Wright  S. The interpretation of population structure by F-statistics with special regard to systems of mating. Evolution. 1965;19:395420. DOIGoogle Scholar
  22. Weir  B, Cockerham  C. Estimating F-statistics for the analysis of population structure. Evolution. 1984;38:135870. DOIGoogle Scholar
  23. Excoffier  L, Laval  G, Schneider  S. ARLEQUIN (version 3.0): an integrated software package for population genetics data analysis. Evol Bioinform Online. 2005;1:4750.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. Ter Braack  C. Canonical correspondence analysis: a new eigenvector technique for multivariate direct gradient analysis. Ecology. 1986;67:116779. DOIGoogle Scholar
  25. Ter Braack  C, Šmilauer  P. CANOCO. Fortran program for canonical community ordination [cited 2010 Sep 5]. http://www.pri.wur.nl/UK/products/Canoco/
  26. Rousset  F. Genetic differentiation and estimation of gene flow from F-statistics under isolation by distance. Genetics. 1997;145:121928.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. Durand  P, Michalakis  Y, Cestier  S, Oury  B, Leclerc  MC, Tibayrenc  M, Significant linkage disequilibrium and high genetic diversity in a population of Plasmodium falciparum from an area (Republic of the Congo) highly endemic for malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003;68:3459.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  28. Razakandrainibe  FG, Durand  P, Koella  JC, De Meeus  T, Rousset  F, Ayala  FJ, “Clonal” population structure of the malaria agent Plasmodium falciparum in high-infection regions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102:1738893. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  29. Annan  Z, Durand  P, Ayala  FJ, Arnathau  C, Awono-Ambene  P, Simard  F, Population genetic structure of Plasmodium falciparum in the two main African vectors, Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104:798792. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. Bonizzoni  M, Afrane  Y, Baliraine  FN, Amenya  DA, Githeko  AK, Yan  G. Genetic structure of Plasmodium falciparum populations between lowland and highland sites and antimalarial drug resistance in western Kenya. Infect Genet Evol. 2009;9:80612. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. Ferreira  MU, Karunaweera  ND, da Silva-Nunes  M, da Silva  NS, Wirth  DF, Hartl  DL. Population structure and transmission dynamics of Plasmodium vivax in rural Amazonia. J Infect Dis. 2007;195:121826. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. Ariey  F, Randrianarivelojosia  M, Duchemin  JB, Rakotondramarina  D, Ouledi  A, Robert  V, Mapping of a Plasmodium falciparum Pfcrt K76T mutation: a useful strategy for controlling chloroquine resistance in Madagascar. J Infect Dis. 2002;185:7102. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. Randrianarivelojosia  M, Raherinjafy  RH, Migliani  R, Mercereau-Puijalon  O, Ariey  F, Bedja  SA. Plasmodium falciparum resistant to chloroquine and to pyrimethamine in Comoros. Parasite. 2004;11:41923.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. Quatresous  I, Jeannel  D, Sissoko  D. Epidémiologie du paludisme à Mayotte. Etat des lieux 2003–2004 et propositions. Paris, France: Institut de Veille Sanitaire; 2005.
  35. Iyer  JK, Milhous  WK, Cortese  JF, Kublin  JG, Plowe  CV. Plasmodium falciparum cross-resistance between trimethoprim and pyrimethamine. Lancet. 2001;358:10667. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. World Health Organization. Susceptibility of Plasmodium falciparum to antimalarial drugs: report on global monitoring: 1996–2004. Geneva: The Organization; 2005 [cited 2010 Sep 5]. http://www.malaria.org/ABOUT%20MALARIA/SusceptibilityPlasmodium_report%20WHO%202004.pdf
  37. Talisuna  AO, Langi  P, Mutabingwa  TK, Van Marck  E, Speybroeck  N, Egwang  TG, Intensity of transmission and spread of gene mutations linked to chloroquine and sulphadoxine–pyrimethamine resistance in falciparum malaria. Int J Parasitol. 2003;33:10518. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. Hastings  IM, Watkins  WM. Intensity of malaria transmission and the evolution of drug resistance. Acta Trop. 2005;94:21829.PubMedGoogle Scholar

Main Article

Page created: March 08, 2011
Page updated: March 08, 2011
Page reviewed: March 08, 2011
The conclusions, findings, and opinions expressed by authors contributing to this journal do not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Public Health Service, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or the authors' affiliated institutions. Use of trade names is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by any of the groups named above.
file_external