Skip directly to site content Skip directly to page options Skip directly to A-Z link Skip directly to A-Z link Skip directly to A-Z link
Volume 28, Supplement—December 2022
SUPPLEMENT ISSUE
Surveillance

A Nationally Representative Survey of COVID-19 in Pakistan, 2021–2022

Sarah AheronComments to Author , Kerton R. Victory, Amnah Imtiaz, Ian Fellows, Sara I. Gilani, Bilal Gilani, Christie Reed, and Avi J. Hakim
Author affiliations: US Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Pretoria, South Africa (S. Aheron); US Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA (K.R. Victory, A.J. Hakim); Gallup Pakistan, Islamabad, Pakistan (A. Imtiaz, S.I. Gilani, B. Gilani); Fellows Statistics, San Diego, CA, USA (I. Fellows); US Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Islamabad, Pakistan (C. Reed)

Main Article

Table 2

Correlates of belief that COVID-19 infection is inevitable and having been tested for COVID-19, Pakistan, 2021–2022*

Characteristic COVID-19 is inevitable†
 Tested for COVID-19‡
OR (95% CI) p value aOR (95% CI) p value OR (95% CI) p value aOR (95% CI) p value
Sex
M Referent 0 Referent 0.13 Referent 0 Referent 0.278
F
 0.6 (0.5–0.7)
0.5 (0.3–0.9)
0.5 (0.4–0.6)
0.9 (0.6–1.4)
Age, y
18–24 Referent 0.909 NA NA Referent 0.797 NA NA
25–34 0.9 (0.7–1.1) NA 1.1 (0.8–1.4) NA
35–44 0.9 (0.7–1.1) NA 0.9 (0.7–1.2) NA
≥45
 1.0 (0.8–1.3)
NA
1.0 (0.8–1.4)
NA
Residence
Rural 0.7 (0.6–0.8) 0 0.7 (0.6–0.9) 0.001 0.8 (0.7–1.0) 0.021 0.8 (0.6–1.0) 0.078
Urban
 Referent
Referent
Referent
Referent
Employment
Employed Referent 0 Referent 0.102 Referent 0 Referent 0.100
Not working 1.0 (0.8–1.3) 0.9 (0.7–1.4) 1.0 (0.8–1.3) 1.0 (0.7–1.4)
Female homemaker
 0.7 (0.6–0.8)
2.4 (1.3–4.4)
0.4 (0.4–0.6)
0.6 (0.3–0.9)
Monthly income, USD
None 0.7 (0.6–0.9) 0.008 0.8 (0.5–1.2) 0.124 0.7 (0.5–0.9) 0.004 1.2 (0.8–1.7) 0.105
<$163 Referent Referent Referent Referent
$163–208 1.3 (0.9–1.7) 1.5 (1.0–2.2) 1.1 (0.8–1.6) 1.2 (0.8–1.7)
>$208
 1.3 (0.9–1.8)
1.0 (0.6–1.5)
1.6 (1.2–2.2)
1.5 (1.0–2.2)
Highest level of education completed
Less than primary Referent 0 Referent 0.223 Referent 0 Referent 0.006
Primary & middle 1.2 (0.9–1.5) 1.2 (0.8–1.8) 1.1 (0.8–1.4) 1.0 (0.7–1.4)
Secondary & high 1.4 (1.1–1.7) 1.1 (0.8–1.6) 1.7 (1.4–2.1) 1.3 (1.0–1.8)
Graduate and postgraduate
 1.9 (1.5–2.4)
1.2 (0.8–1.8)
2.3 (1.8–3.0)
1.5 (1.1–2.2)
Patient Health Questionnaire 4 mental health status§
Normal Referent 0.843 NA NA Referent 0.082 Referent 0.048
Mild 0.8 (0.7–1.0) NA 0.7 (0.6–0.9) 0.7 (0.5–0.9)
Moderate 1.2 (0.9–1.6) NA 1.0 (0.7–1.4) 0.9 (0.6–1.4)
Severe
 1.0 (0.6–1.4)
NA
0.7 (0.4–1.0)
0.5 (0.3–1.0)
Worried about COVID-19
Very worried Referent 0 Referent 0.024 Referent 0.548 NA NA
Moderately 0.8 (0.5–1.2) 0.9 (0.5–1.8) 0.8 (0.5–1.2) NA
A little 0.7 (0.5–0.9) 1.4 (0.9–2.0) 0.6 (0.5–0.9) NA
Not at all
 0.5 (0.4–0.6)
0.7 (0.5–1.0)
0.9 (0.7–1.2)
NA
Tested for COVID-19
Y 1.8 (1.5–2.2) 0 1.2 (0.9–1.6) 0.381 NA NA NA NA
N
 Referent
Referent
NA
NA
COVID-19 inevitable
Y NA NA NA NA 1.8 (1.5–2.2) 0 1.5 (1.2–1.9) 0.001
N
 NA
NA
Referent
Referent
Stressed due to additional responsibilities of caregiving or work due to COVID-19
Strongly disagree Referent 0 Referent 0.061 Referent 0.083 Referent 0.803
Disagree 1.6 (1.2–2.2) 2.4 (1.5–3.7) 0.7 (0.5–1.0) 0.9 (0.6–1.4)
Neutral 1.9 (1.4–2.6) 2.2 (1.4–3.5) 1.0 (0.7–1.4) 1.5 (1.0–2.2)
Agree 1.3 (1.0–1.7) 2.3 (1.5–3.5) 0.6 (0.5–0.9) 0.8 (0.5–1.2)
Strongly agree
 1.9 (1.5–2.4)
1.8 (1.2–2.5)
1.2 (0.9–1.6)
1.1 (0.8–1.5)
COVID-19 is a serious disease
Y 1.9 (1.5–2.5) 0 1.7 (1.2–2.4) 0.001 1.0 (0.8–1.3) 0.960 NA NA
N
 Referent
Referent
Referent
NA
Wearing a face mask
Y 1.4 (1.1–1.9) 0.007 1.2 (0.7–1.9) 0.971 1.3 (1.0–1.8) 0.066 1.4 (0.9–2.1) 0.206
N
 Referent
Referent
Referent
Referent
Physical distance of 2 meters
Y 1.4 (1.1–1.6) 0.001 1.3 (1.0–1.8) 0.103 0.9 (0.7–1.1) 0.222 NA NA
N
 Referent
Referent
Referent
NA
Wash hands more frequently than before COVID-19
Y 1.3 (1.1–1.6) 0.004 1.0 (0.7–1.5) 0.992 1.1 (0.9–1.3) 0.522 NA NA
N
 Referent
Referent
Referent
NA
Avoid non-essential shopping
Y 1.0 (0.8–1.2) 0.939 NA NA 0.7 (0.6–0.9) 0.002 0.9 (0.7–1.2) 0.411
N
 Referent
NA
Referent
Referent
Avoid domestic travel
Y 1.0 (0.8–1.3) 0.925 NA NA 0.7 (0.5–0.8) 0.001 0.9 (0.6–1.2) 0.432
N
 Referent
NA
Referent
Referent
Avoid public transit
Y 0.8 (0.6–1.0) 0.054 0.6 (0.3–1.1) 0.148 0.6 (0.5–0.9) 0.003 1.0 (0.7–1.5) 0.843
N
 Referent
Referent
Referent
Referent
No change in precautions taken
Y 0.5 (0.3–0.8) 0.008 0.9 (0.4–1.9) 0.315 0.8 (0.5–1.3) 0.374 NA NA
N
 Referent
Referent
Referent
NA
Primary source of COVID-19 information
Social media Referent 0.029 Referent 0.086 Referent 0.954 NA NA
Friends and family 0.6 (0.4–0.7) 0.8 (0.5–1.3) 0.6 (0.4–0.8) NA
TV 0.9 (0.7–1.1) 1.1 (0.8–1.5) 0.7 (0.5–0.9) NA
Other 1.6 (1.2–2.1) 1.5 (1.0–2.1) 1.3 (1.0–1.8) NA

*aOR, adjusted odds ratio; NA, not applicable; OR, odds ratio.

†Variables included in the model for thinking COVID-19 is inevitable were: sex, residence, employment status, income, education, worried about contracting COVID-19, tested for COVID-19, stressed due to additional caregiving responsibilities, thinking COVID-19 is a serious disease, wearing a face mask, physical distancing, washing hands more frequently, avoid public transit, no change in precautions taken to prevent to COVID-19 transmission, primary source for COVID-19 information.

‡Variables included in the model for having tested for COVID-19 were: sex, residence, employment status, income, education, PHQ-4 status, thinking contracting COVID-19 is inevitable, stressed due to additional caregiving responsibilities, wearing a face mask, avoiding non-essential shopping, avoiding domestic travel and avoiding public transit.

§Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) scale: normal (0–2), mild (3–5), moderate (6–8), and severe (9–12). A score of higher than normal indicates anxiety and depression.

Main Article

Page created: September 28, 2022
Page updated: December 11, 2022
Page reviewed: December 11, 2022
The conclusions, findings, and opinions expressed by authors contributing to this journal do not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Public Health Service, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or the authors' affiliated institutions. Use of trade names is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by any of the groups named above.
file_external