Volume 31, Number 4—April 2025
Research
Population-Based Matched Cohort Study of COVID-19 Healthcare Costs, Ontario, Canada
Beate Sander
, Sharmistha Mishra, Sarah Swayze, Yeva Sahakyan, Raquel Duchen, Kieran Quinn, Naveed Janjua, Hind Sbihi, and Jeffrey Kwong
, Sharmistha Mishra, Sarah Swayze, Yeva Sahakyan, Raquel Duchen, Kieran Quinn, Naveed Janjua, Hind Sbihi, and Jeffrey Kwong
Table 1
Demographics of persons exposed to COVID-19 and unexposed persons before and after matching, Ontario, Canada*
| Characteristics | Prematched |
Matched |
Unmatched exposed, n = 6,021 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Exposed, n = 165,838 | Unexposed, n = 6,641,074 | SMD | Exposed, n = 159,817 | Unexposed, n = 159,817 | SMD | ||||
| Age at index, y, mean ± SD | 40.4 ± 19.7 | 40.5 ± 22.8 | 0.01 | 40.4 ± 19.8 | 40.5 ± 19.9 | 0.01 | 39.9 ± 18.2 | ||
| Female | 84,013 (50.7) | 3,362,838 (50.6) | 0.00 | 80,987 (50.7) | 80,987 (50.7) | 0.00 | 3,026 (50.3) | ||
| Male | 81,825 (49.3) | 3,278,236 (49.4) | 0.00 | 78,830 (49.3) | 78,830 (49.3) | 0.00 | 2,995 (49.7) | ||
| Rural | 5,691 (3.4) | 95,577 (10.5) | 0.28 | 5,641 (3.5) | 5,655 (3.5) | 0.00 | 50 (0.8) | ||
| Immigrant | 63,962 (38.6) | 1,167,364 (17.6) | 0.48 | 60,357 (37.8) | 59,435 (37.2) | 0.01 | 3,605 (59.9) | ||
| Frail | 4,152 (2.5) | 124,329 (1.9) | 0.04 | 3,729 (2.3) | 5,580 (3.5) | 0.07 | 423 (7.0) | ||
| ACG, mean ± SD | 4.9 ± 3.5 | 4.1 ± 3.3 | 0.24 | 4.9 ± 3.5 | 4.7 ± 3.4 | 0.06 | 5.4 ± 3.4 | ||
| Died during follow-up† |
3,357 (2.0) |
214,864 (3.2) |
0.08 |
3,222 (2.0) |
4,437 (2.8) |
0.05 |
135 (2.2) |
||
| Neighborhood income, lowest to highest | |||||||||
| 1st quintile | 40,878 (24.6) | 1,298,211 (19.5) | 0.12 | 39,182 (24.5) | 39,182 (24.5) | 0.00 | 1,696 (28.2) | ||
| 2nd quintile | 36,212 (21.8) | 1,303,219 (19.6) | 0.05 | 34,653 (21.7) | 34,653 (21.7) | 0.00 | 1,559 (25.9) | ||
| 3rd quintile | 36,205 (21.8) | 1,331,629 (20.1) | 0.04 | 34,731 (21.7) | 34,731 (21.7) | 0.00 | 1,474 (24.5) | ||
| 4th quintile | 29,252 (17.6) | 1,342,461 (20.2) | 0.07 | 28,385 (17.8) | 28,385 (17.8) | 0.00 | 867 (14.4) | ||
| 5th quintile |
23,291 (14.0) |
1,365,554 (20.6) |
0.17 |
22,866 (14.3) |
22,866 (14.3) |
0.00 |
425 (7.1) |
||
| Age and labor force, lowest to highest | |||||||||
| 1st quintile | 59,199 (35.7) | 1,798,679 (27.1) | 0.19 | 57,196 (35.8) | 56,584 (35.4) | 0.01 | 2,017 (33.5) | ||
| 2nd quintile | 37,644 (22.7) | 1,351,752 (20.4) | 0.06 | 36,069 (22.6) | 36,258 (22.7) | 0.00 | 1,582 (26.3) | ||
| 3rd quintile | 26,766 (16.1) | 1,163,844 (17.5) | 0.04 | 25,800 (16.1) | 25,945 (16.2) | 0.00 | 954 (15.8) | ||
| 4th quintile | 22,439 (13.5) | 1,114,963 (16.8) | 0.09 | 21,664 (13.6) | 21,702 (13.6) | 0.00 | 754 (12.5) | ||
| 5th quintile |
18,896 (11.4) |
1,166,635 (17.6) |
0.18 |
18,245 (11.4) |
18,884 (11.8) |
0.01 |
667 (11.1) |
||
| Material resource, lowest to highest | |||||||||
| 1st quintile | 27,993 (16.9) | 1,511,973 (22.8) | 0.15 | 27,408 (17.1) | 27,528 (17.2) | 0.00 | 594 (9.9) | ||
| 2nd quintile | 28,849 (17.4) | 1,390,533 (20.9) | 0.09 | 27,953 (17.5) | 28,033 (17.5) | 0.00 | 836 (13.9) | ||
| 3rd quintile | 32,509 (19.6) | 1,258,511 (19.0) | 0.02 | 31,358 (19.6) | 31,305 (19.6) | 0.00 | 1,215 (20.2) | ||
| 4th quintile | 34,440 (20.8) | 1,204,487 (18.1) | 0.07 | 32,887 (20.6) | 33,218 (20.8) | 0.01 | 1,558 (25.9) | ||
| 5th quintile |
41,153 (24.8) |
1,230,369 (18.5) |
0.15 |
39,368 (24.6) |
39,289 (24.6) |
0.00 |
1,771 (29.4) |
||
| Racialized and newcomer populations, lowest to highest | |||||||||
| 1st quintile | 9,144 (5.5) | 1,043,527 (15.7) | 0.34 | 8,949 (5.6) | 9,544 (6.0) | 0.02 | 147 (2.4) | ||
| 2nd quintile | 13,599 (8.2) | 1,100,621 (16.6) | 0.26 | 13,348 (8.4) | 13,428 (8.4) | 0.00 | 314 (5.2) | ||
| 3rd quintile | 20,746 (12.5) | 1,185,255 (17.8) | 0.15 | 20,191 (12.6) | 20,517 (12.8) | 0.01 | 513 (8.5) | ||
| 4th quintile | 35,081 (21.2) | 1,395,258 (21.0) | 0.00 | 34,095 (21.3) | 34,234 (21.4) | 0.00 | 1,023 (17.0) | ||
| 5th quintile |
86,374 (52.1) |
1,871,212 (28.2) |
0.50 |
82,391 (51.6) |
81,650 (51.1) |
0.01 |
3,977 (66.1) |
||
| Households and dwellings, lowest to highest | |||||||||
| 1st quintile | 47,713 (28.8) | 1,466,510 (22.1) | 0.15 | 45,676 (28.6) | 44,950 (28.1) | 0.01 | 2,034 (33.8) | ||
| 2nd quintile | 27,501 (16.6) | 1,262,030 (19.0) | 0.06 | 26,486 (16.6) | 26,535 (16.6) | 0.00 | 991 (16.5) | ||
| 3rd quintile | 25,258 (15.2) | 1,200,446 (18.1) | 0.08 | 24,368 (15.2) | 24,579 (15.4) | 0.00 | 903 (15.0) | ||
| 4th quintile | 25,957 (15.7) | 1,186,139 (17.9) | 0.06 | 25,084 (15.7) | 25,702 (16.1) | 0.01 | 886 (14.7) | ||
| 5th quintile |
38,515 (23.2) |
1,480,748 (22.3) |
0.02 |
37,360 (23.4) |
37,607 (23.5) |
0.00 |
1,160 (19.3) |
||
| Essential worker, lowest to highest | |||||||||
| 1st quintile | 26,206 (15.8) | 1,412,108 (21.3) | 0.14 | 25,780 (16.1) | 26,293 (16.5) | 0.01 | 426 (7.1) | ||
| 2nd quintile | 34,294 (20.7) | 1,473,288 (22.2) | 0.04 | 33,431 (20.9) | 33,151 (20.7) | 0.00 | 863 (14.3) | ||
| 3rd quintile | 32,254 (19.4) | 1,312,630 (19.8) | 0.01 | 31,060 (19.4) | 31,160 (19.5) | 0.00 | 1,194 (19.8) | ||
| 4th quintile | 35,587 (21.5) | 1,267,957 (19.1) | 0.06 | 33,991 (21.3) | 33,716 (21.1) | 0.00 | 1,596 (26.5) | ||
| 5th quintile |
37,307 (22.5) |
1,162,361 (17.5) |
0.13 |
35,376 (22.1) |
35,221 (22.0) |
0.00 |
1,931 (32.1) |
||
| Resource utilization band | |||||||||
| Nonusers | 12,610 (7.6) | 798,484 (12.0) | 0.15 | 12,292 (7.7) | 12,292 (7.7) | 0.00 | 318 (5.3) | ||
| Healthy users | 8,344 (5.0) | 412,761 (6.2) | 0.05 | 8,138 (5.1) | 8,138 (5.1) | 0.00 | 206 (3.4) | ||
| Low RU | 29,017 (17.5) | 1,327,448 (20.0) | 0.06 | 28,132 (17.6) | 28,132 (17.6) | 0.00 | 885 (14.7) | ||
| Moderate RU | 81,334 (49.0) | 2,969,570 (44.7) | 0.09 | 78,153 (48.9) | 78,153 (48.9) | 0.00 | 3,181 (52.8) | ||
| High RU | 25,032 (15.1) | 823,659 (12.4) | 0.08 | 24,031 (15.0) | 24,031 (15.0) | 0.00 | 1,001 (16.6) | ||
| Very high RU | 9,501 (5.7) | 309,152 (4.7) | 0.05 | 9,071 (5.7) | 9,071 (5.7) | 0.00 | 430 (7.1) | ||
*Values are no. (%) except as indicated. ACG, adjusted clinical groups; FU, follow up; n, number of observations; RU, resource utilization; SMD, standardized difference in means. †Deaths that occurred during the follow up until March 1, 2022.
Page created: February 04, 2025
Page updated: March 24, 2025
Page reviewed: March 24, 2025
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