Volume 8, Number 5—May 2002
Research
Risk to Human Health from a Plethora of Simian Immunodeficiency Viruses in Primate Bushmeat
Figure 2
![Figure 2. Identification of diverse Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) lineages in primate bushmeat. A 650-bp pol fragment was amplified from monkeys representing seven primate species, sequenced, and subjected to phylogenetic tree analysis by the neighbor-joining method. The positions of 21 SIV sequences from the present study (in color) are shown in relation to HIV/SIV reference sequences from the Los Alamos HIV/SIV Sequence Database (in black). The consensus length of the final alignment used for tree construction was 555 bp. The new species-specific SIV lineages are generally identified by a lower-case three-letter code corresponding to the initial letters of the common species name (e.g., SIVgsn for greater spot-nosed monkeys [Cercopithecus nictitans], SIVmus for mustached guenons [C. cephus] and SIVmon for mona monkeys [C. mona]). Lineages are defined as clusters of viral sequences from the same primate species that group together with significant (>80%) bootstrap values. We maintained the lineage designation of SIVtal previously assigned to a virus thought to be derived from a zoo animal of the species Miopithecus talapoin (28) since that sequence, and the two newly derived talapoin viruses from M. ogouensis, cluster together in a phylogenetic tree derived from additional pol nucleotide sequences (not shown). Branch lengths are drawn to scale (the bar indicates 10% divergence). The numbers at the nodes indicate the percent bootstrap values supporting the cluster to the right (only values >80% are shown). Identification of diverse Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) lineages in primate bushmeat. A 650-bp pol fragment was amplified from monkeys representing seven primate species, sequenced, and subjected to phylogenetic tree analysis by the neighbor-joining method. The positions of 21 SIV sequences from the present study (in color) are shown in relation to HIV/SIV reference sequences from the Los Alamos HIV/SIV Sequence Database (in black). The consensus length of the final alignment used for tree construction was 555 bp. The new species-specific SIV lineages are generally identified by a lower-case three-letter code corresponding to the initial letters of the common species name (e.g., SIVgsn for greater spot-nosed monkeys [Cercopithecus nictitans], SIVmus for mustached guenons [C. cephus] and SIVmon for mona monkeys [C. mona]). Lineages are defined as clusters of viral sequences from the same primate species that group together with significant (>80%) bootstrap values. We maintained the lineage designation of SIVtal previously assigned to a virus thought to be derived from a zoo animal of the species Miopithecus talapoin (28) since that sequence, and the two newly derived talapoin viruses from M. ogouensis, cluster together in a phylogenetic tree derived from additional pol nucleotide sequences (not shown). Branch lengths are drawn to scale (the bar indicates 10% divergence). The numbers at the nodes indicate the percent bootstrap values supporting the cluster to the right (only values >80% are shown).](/eid/images/01-0522-F2.jpg)
Figure 2. Identification of diverse Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) lineages in primate bushmeat. A 650-bp pol fragment was amplified from monkeys representing seven primate species, sequenced, and subjected to phylogenetic tree analysis by the neighbor-joining method. The positions of 21 SIV sequences from the present study (in color) are shown in relation to HIV/SIV reference sequences from the Los Alamos HIV/SIV Sequence Database (in black). The consensus length of the final alignment used for tree construction was 555 bp. The new species-specific SIV lineages are generally identified by a lower-case three-letter code corresponding to the initial letters of the common species name (e.g., SIVgsn for greater spot-nosed monkeys [Cercopithecus nictitans], SIVmus for mustached guenons [C. cephus] and SIVmon for mona monkeys [C. mona]). Lineages are defined as clusters of viral sequences from the same primate species that group together with significant (>80%) bootstrap values. We maintained the lineage designation of SIVtal previously assigned to a virus thought to be derived from a zoo animal of the species Miopithecus talapoin (28) since that sequence, and the two newly derived talapoin viruses from M. ogouensis, cluster together in a phylogenetic tree derived from additional pol nucleotide sequences (not shown). Branch lengths are drawn to scale (the bar indicates 10% divergence). The numbers at the nodes indicate the percent bootstrap values supporting the cluster to the right (only values >80% are shown).
References
- Barre-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Science. 1983;220:868–70. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Clavel F, Mansinho K, Chamaret S, Guetard D, Favier V, Nina J, Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 infection associated with AIDS in West Africa. N Engl J Med. 1987;316:1180–5.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- van der Loeff MFS, Aaby P. Towards a better understanding of the epidemiology of HIV-2. AIDS. 1999;13:S69–84.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Hahn BH, Shaw GM, De Cock KM, Sharp PM. AIDS as a zoonosis: scientific and public health implications. Science. 2000;287:607–17. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Huet T, Cheynier R, Meyerhans A, Roelants G, Wain-Hobson S. Genetic organization of a chimpanzee lentivirus related to HIV-1. Nature. 1990;345:356–9. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Gao F, Bailes E, Robertson DL, Chen Y, Rodenburg CM, Michael SF, Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes. Nature. 1999;397:436–41. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Hirsch VM, Olmsted RA, Murphey-Corb M, Purcell RH, Johnson PR. An African primate lentivirus (SIVsm) closely related to HIV-2. Nature. 1989;339:389–92. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Sharp PM, Bailes E, Chaudhuri RR, Rodenburg CM, Santiago MO, Hahn BH. The origins of AIDS viruses: where and when? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2001;356:867–6. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Lowenstine LJ, Pedersen NC, Higgins J, Pallis KC, Uyeda A, Marx P, Seroepidemiologic survey of captive Old World primates for antibodies to human and simian retroviruses, and isolation of a lentivirus from sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys). Int J Cancer. 1986;38:563–74. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Nicol I, Messinger D, Dubouch P, Bernard J, Desportes I, Jouffre R, Use of Old World monkeys for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome research. J Med Primatol. 1989;18:227–36.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Bennett EL, Robinson JG. Hunting for the snark. In: Robinson JG, Bennett EL, editors. Hunting for sustainability in tropical forests. New York: Columbia University Press; 2000. p. 1-9.
- Kingdon J. The Kingdon field guide to African mammals. San Diego: Academic Press; 1997.
- Groves C. Primate taxonomy. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press; 2001.
- Clewley JP, Lewis JCM, Brown DWG, Gadsby EL. Novel simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVdrl) pol sequence from the drill monkey, Mandrillus leucophaeus. J Virol. 1998;72:10305–9.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Courgnaud V, Pourrut X, Bibollet-Ruche F, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Bourgeois A, Delaporte E, Characterization of a novel simian immunodeficiency virus from Guereza Colobus (Colobus guereza) in Cameroon: a new lineage in the nonhuman primate lentivirus family. J Virol. 2001;75:857–66. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Miura T, Sakuragi J, Kawamura M, Fukasawa M, Moriyama EN, Gojobori T, Establishment of a phylogenetic survey system for AIDS-related lentiviruses and demonstration of a new HIV-2 subgroup. AIDS. 1990;4:1257–61. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- von Dornum M, Ruvolo M. Phylogenetic relationships of the new world monkeys (Primates, Platyrrhini) based on nuclear G6PD DNA sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 1999;11:459–76. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Thompson JD, Higgins DG, Gibson TJ. CLUSTAL W - improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting, position-specific gap penalties and weight matrix choice. Nucleic Acids Res. 1994;22:4673–80. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Saitou N, Nei M. The neighbor-joining method: a new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees. Mol Biol Evol. 1987;4:406–25.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Felsenstein J. Confidence-limits on phylogenies—an approach using the bootstrap. Evolution Int J Org Evolution. 1985;39:783–91. DOIGoogle Scholar
- Kimura M. The neutral theory of molecular evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1983.
- Georges-Courbot MC, Lu CY, Makuwa M, Telfer P, Onanga R, Dubreuil G, Natural infection of a household pet red-capped mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus torquatus) with a new simian immunodeficiency virus. J Virol. 1998;72:600–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Peeters M, Janssens W, Fransen K, Brandful J, Heyndrickx L, Koffi K, Isolation of simian immunodeficiency viruses from two sooty mangabeys in Cote d'Ivoire: virological and genetic characterization and relationship to other HIV type 2 and SIVsm/mac strains. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1994;10:1289–94. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Peeters M, Fransen K, Delaporte E, Van den Haesevelde M, Gershy-Damet GM, Kestens L, Isolation and characterization of a new chimpanzee lentivirus (simian immunodeficiency virus isolate cpz-ant) from a wild-captured chimpanzee. AIDS. 1992;6:447–51.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Beer BE, Bailes E, Goeken R, Dapolito G, Coulibaly C, Norley SG, Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) from sun-tailed monkeys (Cercopithecus solatus): evidence for host-dependent evolution of SIV within the C. lhoesti superspecies. J Virol. 1999;73:7734–44.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Hirsch VM, Campbell BJ, Bailes E, Goeken R, Brown C, Elkins WR, Characterization of a novel simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) from L'Hoest monkeys (Cercopithecus l'hoesti): implications for the origins of SIVmnd and other primate lentiviruses. J Virol. 1999;73:1036–45.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Tsujimoto H, Hasegawa A, Maki N, Fukasawa M, Miura T, Speidel S, Sequence of a novel simian immunodeficiency virus from a wild-caught African mandrill. Nature. 1989;341:539–41. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Phillips-Conroy JE, Jolly CJ, Petros B, Allan JS, Desrosiers RC. Sexual transmission of SIVagm in wild grivet monkeys. J Med Primatol. 1994;23:1–7.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Bibollet-Ruche F, Galat-Luong A, Cuny G, Sarni-Manchado P, Galat G, Durand JP, Simian immunodeficiency virus infection in a patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas): evidence for cross-species transmission from African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus) in the wild. J Gen Virol. 1996;77:773–81. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Souquiere S, Bibollet-Ruche F, Robertson DL, Makuwa M, Apetrei C, Onanga R, Wild Mandrillus sphinx are carriers of two types of lentiviruses. J Virol. 2001;75:7086–96. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Asibey EO. Wildlife as a source of protein in Africa south of the Sahara. Biol Conserv. 1974;6:32–9. DOIGoogle Scholar
- Geist V. How markets for wildlife meat and parts, and the sale of hunting privileges, jeopardize wildlife conservation. Conserv Biol. 1988;2:15–26. DOIGoogle Scholar
- Chardonnet P. Faune sauvage africaine: la resource oubliee. Fondation Internationale Pour la Sauvegarde de la nature/CIRAD-EMVT. Luxembourg: Office des publications officialles des commumautés européenes;1996.
- Wilkie D, Shaw E, Rotberg F, Morelli G, Auzel P. Roads, development, and conservation in the congo Basin. Conserv Biol. 2000;14:1614–22. DOIGoogle Scholar
- Auzel P, Hardin R. Colonial history, concessionary politics, and collaborative management of Equatorial African rain forests. In: Bakarr M, Da Fonseca G, Konstant W, Mittermeier R, Painemilla K, editors. Hunting and bushmeat utilization in the African rain forest. Washington: Conservation International; 2000. p 21-38.
- Beer BE, Foley BT, Kuiken CL, Tooze Z, Goeken RM, Brown CR, Characterization of novel simian immunodeficiency viruses from red-capped mangabeys from Nigeria (SIVrcmNG409 and -NG411). J Virol. 2001;75:12014–27. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar