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Volume 25, Number 7—July 2019
Research

Environmental Hotspots for Azole Resistance Selection of Aspergillus fumigatus, the Netherlands

Sijmen E. SchoustraComments to Author , Alfons J.M. Debets, Antonius J.M.M. Rijs1, Jianhua Zhang, Eveline Snelders, Peter C. Leendertse, Willem J.G. Melchers, Anton G. Rietveld, Bas J. Zwaan, and Paul E. Verweij
Author affiliations: Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands (S.E. Schoustra, A.J.M. Debets, J. Zhang, E. Snelders, B.J. Zwaan); Radboud University Medical Center; Nijmegen, the Netherlands (A.J.M.M. Rijs, E. Snelders, W.J.G. Melchers, P.E. Verweij); Center for Agriculture and Environment, Culemborg, the Netherlands (P.C. Leendertse); Center of Expertise in Mycology Radboudumc/CWZ, Nijmegen (W.J.G. Melchers, P.E. Verweij); National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands (A.G. Rietveld)

Main Article

Table

Characteristics of sampling sites in environmental hotspots tested for azole resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus, the Netherlands

Sampling site
 Type*
 Total, CFU/g
 Azole-resistant, CFU/g
 Resistance mutations (no. colonies)
 Azole fungicide (mg/L)†
Wheat grain
Dry R <20 <20 NT Epoxiconazole; tebuconazole
Moist R <20 <20 NT Epoxiconazole; tebuconazole
Organic
 O
 <20
 <20
 NT
 NT
Poultry manure R <20 <20 NT NT
O
 <20
 <20
 NT
 NT
Cattle manure R <20 <20 NT Tebuconazole (0.3); epoxiconazole (0.048); prochloraz (0.017); prochlorazdesimidazole-amino (0.34)
O
 <20
 <20
 NT
 Tebuconazole (0.08); epoxiconazole (0.051); proprioconazole (0.038); prothioconazole-destio (0.0205); difenoconazole
Horse manure/straw R <20 <20 NT Tebuconazole (0.082); prochlorazdesimidazole-amino (0.048); epoxiconazole (0.021); cyproconazole (0.012)
O
 <20
 <20
 NT
 Tebuconazole (0.015)
Maize silage
With Retengo‡ R <20 <20 NT Epoxiconazole (0.012)
Without Retengo‡
 R
 <20
 <20
 NT
 NT
Fruit waste R <20 <20 NT NT
O
 <20
 <20
 NT
 Tebuconazole
Exotic fruit waste R <20 <20 NT Imazalil (0.22)
O
 <20
 <20
 NT
 NT
Household waste, privately owned R 6.4 × 104 1.5 × 103 TR34/L98H (10); TR34/L98H/S302N (1) NT
Household waste, privately owned, duplicate R 2.7 × 105 1.8 × 103 NT NT
Household waste, privately owned O + R 100 <100 NT Prothioconazole; epoxiconazole
Household waste, privately owned O <20 <20 NT NT
Household waste, fresh R 2.3 × 103 200 NT Iprodion (0.024)
Household waste, after 1 wk R <100 <100 NT Propiconazole (0.013); difenoconazole
Household waste, after 3 wk
 R
 200
 <100
 NT
 Propiconazole (0.021); tebuconazole (0.012); difenoconazole
Flower bulb waste
Location 1 R 2 × 104 4.3 × 103 TR34/L98H (6); TR46/Y121F/T289A (7) Prothioconazole (6.4); prothiconazoledestio (0.15); prochloraz (0.11); prochloraz-desimidazole-amino (0.085)
O + R 1.2 × 104 2.5 × 103 TR34/L98H (7); TR34/L98H/F495I (1); TR46/Y121F/T289A (2); TR92/Y121F/M172I/T289A/G448S (1) Prothioconazole (1.9); prochloraz (0.09); prochloraz-desimidazole-amino (0.086); prothiconazole-destio (0.07)
Location 2 O + R 2.9 × 103 180 TR34/L98H (4); TR34/L98H/S297T/F495I (1); TR46/Y121F/T289A/I36 4V (1) Prothioconazole (0.43); prochloraz (0.044); prothiconazole-destio (0.026); epoxiconazole; azaconazole
O + R 2.7 × 104 3.9 × 103 TR34/L98H (5); TR46/Y121F/T289A (3) Prochloraz (0.18); 2,4,6-trichloorphenol (0.17); prothioconazole (0.033); prothiconazole-destio (0.01); tebuconazole (0.022) prochloraz (0.011)
Location 2, 1 y later O + R 9.4 × 105 2.3 × 105 TR34/L98H (5); TR46/Y121F/T289A (6); TR92/Y121F/M172I/T289A/G448S (1) Prothioconazole (1.3); prothiconazoledestio (0.033); difenoconazole; epoxiconazole; penconazole; propriconazole; azaconazole; tebuconazole
O + R 8 × 103 103 NT Prothioconazole (1.1); prochloraz (0.043); prothiconazole-destio (0.026); epoxiconazole; azaconazole
Location 3
 O + R
 3 × 105
 9 × 104
 NT
 Prothioconazole (0.72); prothiconazoledestio (0.026); tebuconazole
Flower bulb fermentation
 O + R
 20
 <20
 NT
 Prothioconazole (1.9); prothiconazoledestio (0.028); tebuconazole (0.021); epoxiconazole
Green waste, location A, 2015
0–1 wk old R 9.4 × 104 8 × 103 TR34/L98H (12) Tebuconazole
5–6 wk old R 1.9 × 106 8.4 × 104 TR34/L98H (2) Tebuconazole (0.004)
7 wk old
 R
 2.7 × 105
 3.6 × 103
 TR34/L98H (10); TR34/L98H/L343H (1); TR34/L98H/E356V (1)
 Tebuconazole (0.001)
Green waste, location A, 2016
5–6 wk old R 3 × 105 9 × 104 NT Tebuconazole; prothioconazole
7 wk old
 R
 2.2 × 103
 60
 NT
 Tebuconazole; prothioconazole
Green waste, location B, 2016
5–6 wk old R 7 × 104 2.8 × 103 NT Tebuconazole; prothioconazole
7 wk old
 R
 2.2 × 103
 60
 NT
 Tebuconazole
Wood chippings waste
Location 1, 2015 R 6.2 × 104 3.6 × 103 TR34/L98H (18) Azaconazole (0.53); propioconazole (0.036); tebuconazole (0.013)
R 104 1.3 × 103 NT Azaconazole (0.53); propioconazole (0.036); tebuconazole (0.013)
Location 1, 2016 R 3 × 105 6 × 103 NT Propioconazole (0.022); azaconazole; tebuconazole
Location 2, 2016 R 60 <20 NT Azaconazole (0.53); propioconazole (0.026); tebuconazole (0.02)

*O, organic cultivation; NT, not tested; O + R, cultivation in transition from regular to organic; R, regular cultivation.
†If no fungicide concentration is shown, the concentration could not be quantified (i.e., <0.001 mg/L).
‡Retengo is a fungicide that contains 50 g/L of epoxiconazole.

Main Article

1Deceased.

Page created: June 17, 2019
Page updated: June 17, 2019
Page reviewed: June 17, 2019
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