Volume 30, Number 8—August 2024
Research
Geographic Distribution of Rabies Virus and Genomic Sequence Alignment of Wild and Vaccine Strains, Kenya
Figure 2

Figure 2. Phylogenetic tree of virus genomes from a study of geographic distribution of rabies virus and genomic sequence alignment of wild and vaccine strains, Kenya. The tree was constructed from whole-genome sequences by using MAD DOG (44). All genomes were of Cosmopolitan clade, subclades Africa-1a or Africa-1b, and were further delineated into a total of 14 distinct lineages, 8 from western Kenya and 5 in eastern Kenya. One lineage from eastern Kenya was unclassified. Scale bar indicates nucleotide substitutions per site.
References
- Steele JH, Fernandez PJ. History of rabies and global aspects. In: Baer GM, editor. The natural history of rabies. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 2017. p. 1–24.
- Dunlop RH, Williams DJ. Veterinary medicine: an illustrated history. St. Louis (MO): Mosby-Year Book, Inc.; 1996.
- Talbi C, Holmes EC, de Benedictis P, Faye O, Nakouné E, Gamatié D, et al. Evolutionary history and dynamics of dog rabies virus in western and central Africa. J Gen Virol. 2009;90:783–91. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Schnell MJ, McGettigan JP, Wirblich C, Papaneri A. The cell biology of rabies virus: using stealth to reach the brain. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010;8:51–61. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Yousaf MZ, Qasim M, Zia S, Khan M, Ashfaq UA, Khan S. Rabies molecular virology, diagnosis, prevention and treatment. Virol J. 2012;9:50. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Fisher CR, Streicker DG, Schnell MJ. The spread and evolution of rabies virus: conquering new frontiers. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2018;16:241–55. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Walker PJ, Freitas-Astúa J, Bejerman N, Blasdell KR, Breyta R, Dietzgen RG, et al.; Ictv Report Consortium. ICTV virus taxonomy profile: Rhabdoviridae 2022. J Gen Virol. 2022;103:
001689 . DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar - Müller T, Freuling CM. Rabies in terrestrial animals. In: Fooks AR, Jackson AC, editors. Rabies: scientific basis of the disease and its management, 4th edition. London: Elsevier Academic Press; 2020. p. 195–230.
- Shipley R, Wright E, Lean FZX, Selden D, Horton DL, Fooks AR, et al. Assessing rabies vaccine protection against a novel lyssavirus, Kotalahti bat lyssavirus. Viruses. 2021;13:947. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- World Health Organization. WHO expert consultation on rabies. WHO technical report series no. 931. Geneva: The Organization; 2005.
- Scott TP, Nel LH. Lyssaviruses and the fatal encephalitic disease rabies. Front Immunol. 2021;12:
786953 . DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar - Singh R, Singh KP, Cherian S, Saminathan M, Kapoor S, Manjunatha Reddy GB, et al. Rabies - epidemiology, pathogenesis, public health concerns and advances in diagnosis and control: a comprehensive review. Vet Q. 2017;37:212–51. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Meske M, Fanelli A, Rocha F, Awada L, Soto PC, Mapitse N, et al. Evolution of rabies in South America and inter-species dynamics (2009–2018). Trop Med Infect Dis. 2021;6:98. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Slate D, Algeo TP, Nelson KM, Chipman RB, Donovan D, Blanton JD, et al. Oral rabies vaccination in north america: opportunities, complexities, and challenges. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2009;3:
e549 . DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar - World Health Organization. WHO expert consultation on rabies. Second report. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 2013;982:1–139.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Zhou M, Zhou Z, Kia GSN, Gnanadurai CW, Leyson CM, Umoh JU, et al. Complete genome sequence of a street rabies virus isolated from a dog in Nigeria. Genome Announc. 2013;1:e00214–12. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Kuzmin IV, Shi M, Orciari LA, Yager PA, Velasco-Villa A, Kuzmina NA, et al. Molecular inferences suggest multiple host shifts of rabies viruses from bats to mesocarnivores in Arizona during 2001-2009. PLoS Pathog. 2012;8:
e1002786 . DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar - Caraballo DA, Lema C, Novaro L, Gury-Dohmen F, Russo S, Beltrán FJ, et al. A novel terrestrial rabies virus lineage occurring in South America: origin, diversification, and evidence of contact between wild and domestic cycles. Viruses. 2021;13:2484. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Troupin C, Dacheux L, Tanguy M, Sabeta C, Blanc H, Bouchier C, et al. Large-scale phylogenomic analysis reveals the complex evolutionary history of rabies virus in multiple carnivore hosts. PLoS Pathog. 2016;12:
e1006041 . DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar - Bourhy H, Reynes J-M, Dunham EJ, Dacheux L, Larrous F, Huong VTQ, et al. The origin and phylogeography of dog rabies virus. J Gen Virol. 2008;89:2673–81. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Brunker K, Hampson K, Horton DL, Biek R. Integrating the landscape epidemiology and genetics of RNA viruses: rabies in domestic dogs as a model. Parasitology. 2012;139:1899–913. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Sadeuh-Mba SA, Momo JB, Besong L, Loul S, Njouom R. Molecular characterization and phylogenetic relatedness of dog-derived Rabies Viruses circulating in Cameroon between 2010 and 2016. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017;11:
e0006041 . DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar - Bitek AO, Osoro E, Munyua PM, Nanyingi M, Muthiani Y, Kiambi S, et al. A hundred years of rabies in Kenya and the strategy for eliminating dog-mediated rabies by 2030. AAS Open Res. 2019;1:23. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- McDermott JJ, Kitala PM. The epidemiology of rabies in Machakos District, Kenya. Nairobi: University of Nairobi College of Agriculture and Veterinary Studies; 2003.
- Chuchu VM, Kitala PM, Bichanga P, Ksee D, Muturi M, Mwatondo A, et al. Rabies elimination in rural Kenya: need for improved availability of human vaccines, awareness and knowledge on rabies and its management among healthcare workers. Front Public Health. 2022;10:
769898 . DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar - Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Health and Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries. Strategic plan for the elimination of human rabies in Kenya 2014–2030. Nairobi: The Republic; 2014.
- Hampson K, Coudeville L, Lembo T, Sambo M, Kieffer A, Attlan M, et al.; Global Alliance for Rabies Control Partners for Rabies Prevention. Estimating the global burden of endemic canine rabies. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9:
e0003709 . DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar - World Health Organization. WHO Expert Consultation on Rabies, WHO technical report series, no. 1012. Geneva: The Organization; 2018.
- World Health Organization. Rabies vaccines: WHO position paper, April 2018 - Recommendations. Vaccine. 2018;36:5500–3. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Luo Y, Zhang Y, Liu X, Yang Y, Yang X, Zhang D, et al. Complete genome sequence of a highly virulent rabies virus isolated from a rabid pig in south China. J Virol. 2012;86:12454–5. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Zhang G, Fu ZF. Complete genome sequence of a street rabies virus from Mexico. J Virol. 2012;86:10892–3. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Wunner WH, Conzelmann K-K. Rabies virus. In: Fooks AR, Jackson AC, editors. Rabies: scientific basis of the disease and its management, 4th edition. London: Elsevier Academic Press; 2020. p. 43–81.
- Wang W, Ma J, Nie J, Li J, Cao S, Wang L, et al. Antigenic variations of recent street rabies virus. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2019;8:1584–92. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Morimoto K, Hooper DC, Carbaugh H, Fu ZF, Koprowski H, Dietzschold B. Rabies virus quasispecies: implications for pathogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998;95:3152–6. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- de Almeida GL, Cargnelutti JF, Ries AS, Ferreira JC, Rosa JCA, Batista HBCR, et al. Sequence analysis of nucleoprotein gene reveals the co-circulation of lineages and sublineages of rabies virus in herbivorous in Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil. Braz J Microbiol. 2020;51:837–46. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Zandi F, Goshadrou F, Meyfour A, Vaziri B. Rabies infection: an overview of lyssavirus–host protein interactions. Iran Biomed J. 2021;25:226–42. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Brightman C. Rabies: an acute viral infection. Trends Urol Men’s Heal. 2012;3:31–3. DOIGoogle Scholar
- Ajorloo M, Mirzaei H, Sadeghi Y, Tarban N, Soltani S, Mohammadi FS, et al. Evaluation and phylogenetic analysis of regular rabies virus vaccine strains. Arch Iran Med. 2018;21:101–10.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Kim H-H, Yang D-K, Nah J-J, Song J-Y, Cho I-S. Comparison of the protective efficacy between single and combination of recombinant adenoviruses expressing complete and truncated glycoprotein, and nucleoprotein of the pathogenic street rabies virus in mice. Virol J. 2017;14:122. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Zhang G, Wang H, Mahmood F, Fu ZF. Rabies virus glycoprotein is an important determinant for the induction of innate immune responses and the pathogenic mechanisms. Vet Microbiol. 2013;162:601–13. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Tenzin T, Lhamo K, Rai PB, Tshering D, Jamtsho P, Namgyal J, et al. Evaluation of a rapid immunochromatographic test kit to the gold standard fluorescent antibody test for diagnosis of rabies in animals in Bhutan. BMC Vet Res. 2020;16:183. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Bohlander SK, Espinosa R III, Le Beau MM, Rowley JD, Díaz MO. A method for the rapid sequence-independent amplification of microdissected chromosomal material. Genomics. 1992;13:1322–4. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Wang D, Coscoy L, Zylberberg M, Avila PC, Boushey HA, Ganem D, et al. Microarray-based detection and genotyping of viral pathogens. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99:15687–92. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Campbell K, Gifford RJ, Singer J, Hill V, O’Toole A, Rambaut A, et al. Making genomic surveillance deliver: A lineage classification and nomenclature system to inform rabies elimination. PLoS Pathog. 2022;18:
e1010023 . DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar - Minh BQ, Schmidt HA, Chernomor O, Schrempf D, Woodhams MD, von Haeseler A, et al. IQ-TREE 2: new models and efficient methods for phylogenetic inference in the genomic ea. Mol Biol Evol. 2020;37:1530–4. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Kat PW, Alexander KA, Smith JS, Munson L. Rabies and African wild dogs in Kenya. Proc Biol Sci. 1995;262:229–33. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Brunker K, Jaswant G, Thumbi SM, Lushasi K, Lugelo A, Czupryna AM, et al. Rapid in-country sequencing of whole virus genomes to inform rabies elimination programmes. Wellcome Open Res. 2020;5:3. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Gigante CM, Yale G, Condori RE, Costa NC, Long NV, Minh PQ, et al. Portable rabies virus sequencing in canine rabies endemic countries using the Oxford Nanopore MinION. Viruses. 2020;12:1255. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Wheeler DC, Waller LA. Mountains, valleys, and rivers: The transmission of raccoon rabies over a heterogeneous landscape. J Agric Biol Environ Stat. 2008;13:388–406. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
- Metlin A, Paulin L, Suomalainen S, Neuvonen E, Rybakov S, Mikhalishin V, et al. Characterization of Russian rabies virus vaccine strain RV-97. Virus Res. 2008;132:242–7. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
Page created: June 24, 2024
Page updated: August 07, 2024
Page reviewed: August 07, 2024
The conclusions, findings, and opinions expressed by authors contributing to this journal do not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Public Health Service, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or the authors' affiliated institutions. Use of trade names is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by any of the groups named above.