Volume 26, Number 9—September 2020
Research
Association of Biosecurity and Hygiene Practices with Environmental Contamination with Influenza A Viruses in Live Bird Markets, Bangladesh
Sukanta Chowdhury
, Eduardo Azziz-Baumgartner, James C. Kile, Md. A. Hoque, Mohammed Z. Rahman, Md. E. Hossain, Probir K. Ghosh, Syed S.U. Ahmed, Erin D. Kennedy, Katharine Sturm-Ramirez, and Emily S. Gurley
, Eduardo Azziz-Baumgartner, James C. Kile, Md. A. Hoque, Mohammed Z. Rahman, Md. E. Hossain, Probir K. Ghosh, Syed S.U. Ahmed, Erin D. Kennedy, Katharine Sturm-Ramirez, and Emily S. Gurley
Table 3
Shop-level biosecurity practices and environmental contamination with 800 influenza A viruses in 10 metropolitan areas, Bangladesh, March 2015*
| Variable | No. (%) shops | No. (%) shops positive for influenza A viruses, n = 205 | OR (95% CI) | p value | Adjusted OR (95% CI)† | p value† |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Poultry species | ||||||
| Single | 731 (91) | 184 (25) | Referent | NA | ||
| Multiple |
69 (9) |
21 (30) |
1.45 (0.9–2.32) |
0.12 |
||
| Presence of waterfowl | ||||||
| No | 752 (94) | 190 (25) | Referent | NA | ||
| Yes |
48 (6) |
15 (31) |
1.68 (0.86–3.32) |
0.13 |
||
| Poultry holding areas | ||||||
| Only wire cage | 281 (35) | 55 (20) | Referent | NA | Referent | NA |
| Only bamboo cage | 153 (19) | 53 (35) | 2.12 (0.85–5.28) | 0.1 | 2.24 (0.87–5.77) | 0.09 |
| Only floor | 24 (3) | 9 (38) | 3.86 (1–15.07) | 0.05 | 3.95 (1.27–12.23) | 0.01 |
| Mixed |
342 (43) |
88 (26) |
1.72 (0.96–3.09) |
0.06 |
1.71 (0.96–3.04) |
0.06 |
| Cleaning poultry holding areas | ||||||
| No cleaning in past month | 26 (3) | 12 (46) | Referent | NA | Referent | NA |
| Monthly | 68 (9) | 10 (14) | 0.2 (0.08–0.49) | <0.01 | 0.47 (0.28–0.8) | <0.01 |
| Weekly‡ | 238 (30) | 57 (24) | 0.37 (0.18–0.73) | <0.01 | NA | NA |
| Daily |
468 (59) |
126 (27) |
0.41 (0.27–0.62) |
<0.01 |
1.09 (0.91–1.31) |
0.31 |
| Disinfecting poultry holding areas | ||||||
| No disinfection in past month | 577 (72) | 150 (26) | Referent | NA | ||
| Monthly | 38 (5) | 10 (26) | 1.1 (0.53–2.25) | 0.79 | ||
| Weekly |
185 (23) |
45 (24) |
0.81 (0.61–1.07) |
0.14 |
||
| Slaughtering poultry within shop | ||||||
| No | 115 (14) | 18 (16) | Referent | NA | Referent | NA |
| Yes |
685 (86) |
187 (27) |
1.7 (1.08–2.67) |
0.02 |
1.87 (1.11–3.14) |
0.01 |
| Presence of unsold poultry after the end of business day | ||||||
| No poultry left | 146 (18) | 19 (13) | Referent | NA | Referent | NA |
| Presence of unsold poultry |
654 (82) |
186 (28) |
2.29 (1.44–3.63) |
<0.01 |
2.35 (1.4–3.93) |
<0.01 |
| Weekly rest day | ||||||
| Yes | 208 (26) | 51 (25) | Referent | NA | Referent | NA |
| No |
592 (74) |
154 (26) |
1.34 (1.14–1.58) |
<0.01 |
1.35 (1.12–1.63) |
<0.01 |
| Source of poultry | ||||||
| Poultry farm | 49 (6) | 12 (24) | Referent | NA | ||
| Intermediaries | 54 (7) | 10 (19) | 0.85 (0.27–2.64) | 0.78 | ||
| Wholesale market | 525 (66) | 143 (27) | 1.05 (0.51–2.16) | 0.88 | ||
| Multiple sources |
172 (21) |
40 (23) |
0.94 (0.35–2.49) |
0.9 |
||
| Separation of sick poultry from healthy flocks | ||||||
| Yes | 357 (45) | 85 (24) | Referent | NA | Referent | NA |
| No |
443 (55) |
120 (27) |
1.25 (1–1.58) |
0.05 |
1.31 (1.06–1.62) |
0.01 |
| Type of shop floor | ||||||
| Tiles/concrete | 244 (31) | 32 (13) | Referent | NA | Referent | NA |
| Dirt/mud | 33 (4) | 8 (24) | 3.61 (1.7–7.67) | <0.01 | 3.2 (1.46–7.09) | <0.01 |
| Mixed |
523 (65) |
165 (32) |
4.01 (2.53–6.36) |
<0.01 |
3.64 (2.32–5.71) |
<0.01 |
| Poultry density/mm2 | ||||||
| <32 | 568 (71) | 147 (26) | Referent | NA | ||
| >33 | 232 (29) | 58 (25) | 0.89 (0.68–1.15) | 0.39 | ||
*Variables for geographic location of metropolitan areas and live bird markets were adjusted to account for clustering effects in univariate and multivariate analysis. NA, not applicable; OR, odds ratio.
†Only statistically significant relationships are shown for adjusted OR (95% CI) data and corresponding p values.
‡The weekly cleaning variable was removed from the multivariate model because of collinearity. Model fit: model χ2 76.29, p<0.001, df 11; adjusted generalized R2 0.596.
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Page updated: August 19, 2020
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