Skip directly to site content Skip directly to page options Skip directly to A-Z link Skip directly to A-Z link Skip directly to A-Z link

Disclaimer: Early release articles are not considered as final versions. Any changes will be reflected in the online version in the month the article is officially released.

Volume 32, Number 7—July 2026

Online Report

Inconsistent Strategies to Mitigate the Effects of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, Europe

Philipp BöningComments to Author , Stefan Lötters, Vojtech Baláž, Wouter Beukema, Jaime Bosch, Salvador Carranza, Andrew A. Cunningham, Jesse Erens, Matthew C. Fisher, Trenton W.J. Garner, Maarten J. Gilbert, Florian Glaser, Christian Gortazar, Elena Grasselli, Matthew J. Gray, Daniel Fernández-Guiberteau, Thierry Kinet, Rok Kostanjšek, David Lastra González, Arnaud Laudelout, An Martel, Albert Martínez-Silvestre, Claude Miaud, Maciej Pabijan, Amadeus Plewnia, Doris Preininger, Riinu Rannap, Sebastiano Salvidio, Maximilian Schweinsberg, Annemarieke Spitzen-van der Sluijs, Raf Stassen, Ilias Strachinis, Barbora Thumsová, Jonas Virgo, Jiří Vojar, Michael Veith, and Frank Pasmans
Author affiliation: Trier University, Trier, Germany (P. Böning, S. Lötters, J. Erens, A. Plewnia, M. Veith); University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic (V. Baláž); Reptile, Amphibian & Fish Conservation Netherlands (RAVON), Nijmegen, the Netherlands (W. Beukema, M.J. Gilbert); Biodiversity Research Institute (IMIB), CSIC-University of Oviedo-Principality of Asturias, Mieres, Spain (J. Bosch); Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC-UPF), Barcelona, Spain (S. Carranza); Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, UK (A.A. Cunningham, T.W.J. Garner); Imperial College School of Public Health, London (M.C. Fisher); North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, Potchefstroom, South Africa (T.W.J. Garner); Technisches Büro für Biologie, Absam, Austria (F. Glaser); SaBio Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (UCLM-CSIC-JCCM), Ciudad Real, Spain (C. Gortazar); University of Genova, Genova, Italy (E. Grasselli, S. Salvidio); University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA (M.J. Gray); Centre de Recerca i Educació Ambiental de Calafell (CREAC-GRENP-Ajuntament de Calafell), Tarragona, Spain (D. Fernández-Guiberteau); Natagora, Namur, Belgium (T. Kinet, A. Laudelout); University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia (R. Kostanjšek); Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic (D.L. González, J. Vojar); University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Japan (D.L. González); Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium (A. Martel, A. Plewnia, F. Pasmans); Catalonian Reptiles and Amphibians Rescue Center (CRARC), Barcelona, Spain (A. Martínez-Silvestre); CNRS, EPHE-PSL University, Montpellier, France (C. Miaud); Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland (M. Pabijan); Vienna Zoo, Vienna, Austria (D. Preininger); University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia (R. Rannap); University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany (M. Schweinsberg); Ministry of Defence, The Hague, the Netherlands (A. Spitzen-van der Sluijs); Biota.lu sàrl, Hostert, Luxembourg (R. Stassen); Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece (I. Strachinis); Charles University, Prague (B. Thumsová); University of Bochum, Bochum, Germany (J. Virgo)

Main Article

Table

Proposed European Union–level funding framework for coordinated prevention and response in analysis of inconsistent strategies to mitigate the effects of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, Europe

Funding component Primary objective Expected policy impact
International coordination Enhancing information share and coordination Harmonized cross-border response and coordination
Disease monitoring Early disease detection and monitoring spread Compliance with Animal Health Law (31)
Disease prevention Reduce introduction and transboundary spread risk Compliance with Animal Health Law (31)
Applied and fundamental research Develop evidence-based and sustainable management tools Availability of decision-making and mitigation tools
Outbreak response Outbreak containment and reduced disease impact Compliance with Habitats directive (53)

Main Article

References
  1. Longshaw  M. Diseases of crayfish: a review. J Invertebr Pathol. 2011;106:54–70. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. Blehert  DS. Fungal disease and the developing story of bat white-nose syndrome. PLoS Pathog. 2012;8:e1002779. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. Lorch  JM, Knowles  S, Lankton  JS, Michell  K, Edwards  JL, Kapfer  JM, et al. Snake fungal disease: an emerging threat to wild snakes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2016;371:20150457. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. Fisher  MC, Garner  TWJ. Chytrid fungi and global amphibian declines. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2020;18:332–43. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. Daszak  P, Cunningham  AA, Hyatt  AD. Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife—threats to biodiversity and human health. Science. 2000;287:443–9. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  6. Springborn  MR, Weill  JA, Lips  KR, Ibáñez  R, Ghosh  A. Amphibian collapses increased malaria incidence in Central America. Environ Res Lett. 2022;17:104012. DOIGoogle Scholar
  7. Frank  EG. The economic impacts of ecosystem disruptions: costs from substituting biological pest control. Science. 2024;385:eadg0344. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. Vaeßen  S, Hollert  H. Impacts of the North American signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) on European ecosystems. Environ Sci Eur. 2015;27:33. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  9. Jussila  J, Edsman  L, Maguire  I, Diéguez-Uribeondo  J, Theissinger  K. Money kills native ecosystems: European crayfish as an example. Front Ecol Evol. 2021;9:648495. DOIGoogle Scholar
  10. Weinländer  M, Füreder  L. Native and alien crayfish species: do their trophic roles differ? Freshw Sci. 2016;35:1340–53. DOIGoogle Scholar
  11. Hoyt  JR, Kilpatrick  AM, Langwig  KE. Ecology and impacts of white-nose syndrome on bats. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2021;19:196–210. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. Zipkin  EF, DiRenzo  GV, Ray  JM, Rossman  S, Lips  KR. Tropical snake diversity collapses after widespread amphibian loss. Science. 2020;367:814–6. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. Buttke  DE, Decker  DJ, Wild  MA. The role of One Health in wildlife conservation: a challenge and opportunity. J Wildl Dis. 2015;51:1–8. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. Adisasmito  WB, Almuhairi  S, Behravesh  CB, Bilivogui  P, Bukachi  SA, Casas  N, et al.; One Health High-Level Expert Panel (OHHLEP). One Health: a new definition for a sustainable and healthy future. PLoS Pathog. 2022;18:e1010537. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. World Organisation for Animal Health. OIE Wildlife Health Framework: protecting wildlife health to achieve One Health [cited 2023 Nov 15]. https://www.woah.org/fileadmin/Home/eng/Internationa_Standard_Setting/docs/pdf/WGWildlife/A_Wildlifehealth_conceptnote.pdf
  16. Ghai  RR, Wallace  RM, Kile  JC, Shoemaker  TR, Vieira  AR, Negron  ME, et al. A generalizable One Health framework for the control of zoonotic diseases. Sci Rep. 2022;12:8588. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. Cunningham  AA, Daszak  P, Wood  JLN. One Health, emerging infectious diseases and wildlife: two decades of progress? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2017;372:20160167. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. Scheele  BC, Pasmans  F, Skerratt  LF, Berger  L, Martel  A, Beukema  W, et al. Amphibian fungal panzootic causes catastrophic and ongoing loss of biodiversity. Science. 2019;363:1459–63. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. Luedtke  JA, Chanson  J, Neam  K, Hobin  L, Maciel  AO, Catenazzi  A, et al. Ongoing declines for the world’s amphibians in the face of emerging threats. Nature. 2023;622:308–14. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. Martel  A, Blooi  M, Adriaensen  C, Van Rooij  P, Beukema  W, Fisher  MC, et al. Wildlife disease. Recent introduction of a chytrid fungus endangers Western Palearctic salamanders. Science. 2014;346:630–1. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. Gray  MJ, Carter  ED, Piovia-Scott  J, Cusaac  JPW, Peterson  AC, Whetstone  RD, et al. Broad host susceptibility of North American amphibian species to Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans suggests high invasion potential and biodiversity risk. Nat Commun. 2023;14:3270. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. DiRenzo  GV, Longo  AV, Muletz-Wolz  CR, Pessier  AP, Goodheart  JA, Lips  KR. Plethodontid salamanders show variable disease dynamics in response to Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans chytridiomycosis. Biol Invasions. 2021;23:2797–815. DOIGoogle Scholar
  23. Martel  A, Spitzen-van der Sluijs  A, Blooi  M, Bert  W, Ducatelle  R, Fisher  MC, et al. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans sp. nov. causes lethal chytridiomycosis in amphibians. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110:15325–9. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. Gilbert  MJ, Spitzen-van der Sluijs  A, Canessa  S, Bosch  J, Cunningham  AA, Grasselli  E, et al. Mitigating Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans in Europe. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans Action Plan for European urodeles [cited 2023 Nov 15]. http://bsaleurope.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Bsal-Action-Plan.pdf
  25. Thomas  V, Wang  Y, Rooij  PV, Verbrugghe  E, Baláž  V, Bosch  J, et al. Mitigating Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans in Europe. Amphib-Reptil. 2019;40:265–90. DOIGoogle Scholar
  26. Martel  A, Vila-Escale  M, Fernández-Giberteau  D, Martinez-Silvestre  A, Canessa  S, Van Praet  S, et al. Integral chain management of wildlife diseases. Conserv Lett. 2020;13:e12707. DOIGoogle Scholar
  27. Akçakaya  HR, Neam  K, Hobin  L, Lötters  S, Martel  A, Pasmans  F. Assessing the extinction risks of amphibians impacted by infectious diseases. Biol Conserv. 2023;284:110205. DOIGoogle Scholar
  28. Böning  P, Plewnia  A, Virgo  J, Adam  J, Banowski  N, Bleidißel  S, et al. Salamander plague: characterization and current situation in Germany. Recommendation for action [in German]. Z Feldherpetol. 2024;31:1–38.
  29. Sabino-Pinto  J, Veith  M, Vences  M, Steinfartz  S. Asymptomatic infection of the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans in captivity. Sci Rep. 2018;8:11767. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. Nguyen  TT, Van Nguyen  T, Ziegler  T, Pasmans  F, Martel  A. Trade in wild anurans vectors the urodelan pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans into Europe. Amphib-Reptil. 2018;38:554–6. DOIGoogle Scholar
  31. European Union. Regulation (EU) 2016/429 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 2016 on transmissible animal diseases and amending and repealing certain acts in the area of animal health (‘Animal Health Law’) [cited 2023 Nov 11]. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32016R0429
  32. Sun  D, Ellepola  G, Herath  J, Meegaskumbura  M. The two chytrid pathogens of amphibians in Eurasia-climatic niches and future expansion. BMC Ecol Evol. 2023;23:26. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. Beukema  W, Erens  J, Schulz  V, Stegen  G, Spitzen-van der Sluijs  A, Stark  T, et al. Landscape epidemiology of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans: reconciling data limitations and conservation urgency. Ecol Appl. 2021;31:e02342. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. Lastra González  D, Baláž  V, Solský  M, Thumsová  B, Kolenda  K, Najbar  A, et al. Recent findings of potentially lethal salamander fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans. Emerg Infect Dis. 2019;25:1416–8. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. Baláž  V, Solský  M, Lastra González  D, Havlíková  B, Zamorano  JG, González  C, et al. First survey of the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans in wild and captive amphibians in the Czech Republic. Salamandra (Frankf). 2018;54:87–91.
  36. Fitzpatrick  LD, Pasmans  F, Martel  A, Cunningham  AA. Epidemiological tracing of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans identifies widespread infection and associated mortalities in private amphibian collections. Sci Rep. 2018;8:13845. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. Grasselli  E, Bianchi  G, Dondero  L, Marchianò  V, Carafa  M, Perrone  M, et al. First screening for Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) in wild and captive salamanders from Italy. Salamandra (Frankf). 2019;55:124–6.
  38. Marquis  O, Miaud  C, Gibault  C, Chai  N. A first screening of chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium in amphibians in French zoos. Int Zoo Yearb. 2019;53:217–26. DOIGoogle Scholar
  39. Kostanjšek  R, Turk  M, Vek  M, Guitérrez-Aguirre  I, Cimerman  NG. First screening for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, B. salamandrivorans and ranavirus infections in wild and captive amphibians in Slovenia. Salamandra (Frankf). 2021;57:162–6.
  40. Thumsová  B, Bosch  J, Martínez-Silvestre  A. Incidence of emerging pathogens in the legal and illegal amphibian trade in Spain. Herpetol Notes. 2021;14:777–84.
  41. Kelly  M, Pasmans  F, Muñoz  JF, Shea  TP, Carranza  S, Cuomo  CA, et al. Diversity, multifaceted evolution, and facultative saprotrophism in the European Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans epidemic. Nat Commun. 2021;12:6688. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  42. Laking  AE, Li  Z, Goossens  E, Miñarro  M, Beukema  W, Lens  L, et al. Salamander loss alters litter decomposition dynamics. Sci Total Environ. 2021;776:145994. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  43. Plowright  RK, Ahmed  AN, Coulson  T, Crowther  TW, Ejotre  I, Faust  CL, et al. Ecological countermeasures to prevent pathogen spillover and subsequent pandemics. Nat Commun. 2024;15:2577. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  44. Palencia  P, Blome  S, Brook  RK, Ferroglio  E, Jo  YS, Linden  A, et al. Tools and opportunities for African swine fever control in wild boar and feral pigs: a review. Eur J Wildl Res. 2023;69:69. DOIGoogle Scholar
  45. European Union. Animal health: the EU’s fight against African swine fever [cited 2023 Nov 15]. https://food.ec.europa.eu/document/download/562e4071-2415-40c7-af00-c848ee1ab7bc_en?filename=ad_control-measures_asf_factsheet_2023.pdf
  46. Gray  MJ, Lewis  JP, Nanjappa  P, Klocke  B, Pasmans  F, Martel  A, et al. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans: the North American response and a call for action. PLoS Pathog. 2015;11:e1005251. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. Waddle  JH, Grear  DA, Mosher  BA, Grant  EHC, Adams  MJ, Backlin  AR, et al. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) not detected in an intensive survey of wild North American amphibians. Sci Rep. 2020;10:13012. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. Gray  MJ, Carter  ED, Piovia-Scott  J, Cusaac  JPW, Peterson  AC, Whetstone  RD, et al. Broad host susceptibility of North American amphibian species to Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans suggests high invasion potential and biodiversity risk. Nat Commun. 2023;14:3270. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. Olson  DH, Grant  EHC, Bletz  M, Piovia-Scott  J, Lesbarrères  D, Kerby  JL, et al. Preparing for a Bsal invasion into North America has improved multi-sector readiness. Front Amphib Reptile Sci. 2024;2:1347541. DOIGoogle Scholar
  50. Cavasos  K, Adhikari  RK, Poudyal  NC, Brunner  JL, Warwick  AR, Gray  MJ. Understanding the demand for and value of pathogen‐free amphibians to US pet owners. Conserv Sci Pract. 2023;5:e12995. DOIGoogle Scholar
  51. Conelly  PJ, Ross  N, Stringham  OC, Eskew  EA. United States amphibian imports pose a disease risk to salamanders despite Lacey act regulations. Commun Earth Environ. 2023;4:351. DOIGoogle Scholar
  52. European Union. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030—bringing nature back into our lives [cited 2026 Jun 19]. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=celex:52020DC0380
  53. European Union. Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora [cited 2026 Jun 25]. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/1992/43/2013-07-01

Main Article

Page created: May 14, 2026
Page updated: June 25, 2026
Page reviewed: June 25, 2026
The conclusions, findings, and opinions expressed by authors contributing to this journal do not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Public Health Service, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or the authors' affiliated institutions. Use of trade names is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by any of the groups named above.
file_external