Table 2

Volume 31, Number 10—October 2025

Comparative Epidemiology of Salmonella enterica Serovers Paratyphi A and Typhi Causing Enteric Fever, Bangladesh, 2018–2020

Sadia Isfat Ara Rahman¹

, Md Golam Firoj¹, Se Eun Park¹, Farhana Khanam¹, Suneth Agampodi¹, Kassa Haile¹, Edilawit Mesfin, Faisal Ahmmed, Md Taufiqul Islam, Ashraful Islam Khan, Fahima Chowdhury, Afroza Akter, Martin Bundi Mwebia, Justin Im, Natasha Y. Rickett, Cecilia Kathure Mbae, Asma Binte Aziz, Beatrice Ongadi, Moses Mwangi, Benjamin Ngugi, Meseret Gebre Behute, Kelvin Kering, Suman Kanungo, Xinxue Liu, Deok Ryun Kim, Andrew J. Pollard, K Zaman², Samuel Kariuki², Firdausi Qadri², and John D. Clemens²

Author affiliation: icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh (S.I.A. Rahman, M.G. Firoj, F. Khanam, F. Ahmmed, M.T. Islam, A.I. Khan, F. Chowdhury, A. Akter, K. Zaman, F. Qadri, J.D. Clemens); Yonsei University Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul, South Korea (S.E. Park); International Vaccine Institute, Seoul (S.E. Park, S. Agampodi, N.Y. Rickett, A.B. Aziz, M.G. Behute, D.R. Kim, J.D. Clemens); Armauer Hansen Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (K. Haile, E. Mesfin); Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya (M.B. Mwebia, C.K. Mbae, B. Ongadi, M. Mwangi, B. Ngugi, K. Kering, S. Kariuki); RIGHT Foundation, Seoul (J. Im); ICMR, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India (S. Kanungo); University of Oxford, Oxford, UK (X. Liu, A.J. Pollard); NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre and Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford (A.J. Pollard); UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA (J.D. Clemens); Korea University Vaccine Innovation Center, Seoul (J.D. Clemens)

Main Article

Associations between sociodemographic and WaSH characteristics and the occurrence of Salmonella Paratyphi A disease in closed cohort in epidemiologic study of Salmonella Paratyphi A and Salmonella Typhi, Bangladesh, 2018–2020*

Characteristic	No. participants	PY	No. cases	IR (95% CI)	Crude HR	p value	Adjusted HR†	p value
Religion
Muslim	203,593	316,714	86	27 (22–33)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
Other	2,472	3,772	1	27 (2–124)	0.98 (0.14–7.06)	0.986	1.04 (0.14–7.43)	0.973
Monthly expenditure
Below median	100,505	153,458	46	30 (22–40)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
Median or above	105,560	167,028	41	25 (18–33)	0.83 (0.54–1.26)	0.381	0.81 (0.53–1.24)	0.332
Toilet facility: private
Y	85,915	141,424	18	13 (8–20)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	120,150	179,062	69	39 (30–48)	2.88 (1.71–4.84)	<0.001	2.77 (1.65–4.66)	<0.001
Adult toilet: flush toilet
Y	10,374	16,489	4	24 (8–58)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	195,691	303,997	83	27 (22–34)	1.09 (0.4–2.96)	0.871	1.03 (0.38–2.81)	0.952
Child toilet: flush toilet
Y	853	1,386	0	0 (0–178)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	205,212	319,099	87	27 (22–33)	1,210,612.65 (0–∞)	0.994	1,393,520.45 (0–∞)	0.994
Source of drinking water: private tap, well, or pump; bottled water and water vendor
Y	61,017	99,004	14	14 (8–23)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	145,048	221,482	73	33 (26–41)	2.24 (1.26–3.96)	0.006	2.1 (1.19–3.72)	0.011
Treated cleaning water
Y	889	1,387	0	0 (0–178)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	205,176	319,098	87	27 (22–33)	1,210,682.57 (0–∞)	0.994	1,132,383.86 (0–∞)	0.994
Hand wash before taking meal
Y	145,554	227,911	54	24 (18–31)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	60,511	92,575	33	36 (25–49)	1.49 (0.96–2.29)	0.072	1.45 (0.94–2.24)	0.090
Hand wash after defecation
Y	200,637	312,047	87	28 (22–34)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	5,428	8,439	0	0 (0–29)	0 (0–∞)	0.994	0 (0–∞)	0.993
Handwashing water available in household
Y	200,101	311,181	82	26 (21–33)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	5,964	9,305	5	54 (20–118)	2.02 (0.82–4.99)	0.126	2.02 (0.82–4.99)	0.126
Handwashing soap available in household
Y	202,351	314,711	87	28 (22–34)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	3,714	5,775	0	0 (0–43)	0 (0–∞)	0.992	0 (0–∞)	0.992
Waste disposal place: fixed disposal
Y	193,217	300,307	84	28 (22–34)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	12,848	20,179	3	15 (4–40)	0.53 (0.17–1.67)	0.278	0.49 (0.16–1.56)	0.227
Distance to drinking water source: shorter than median distance
Y	101,145	156,461	42	27 (20–36)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	104,920	164,025	45	27 (20–36)	1.02 (0.67–1.56)	0.921	0.99 (0.65–1.51)	0.964
Water filter available in household
Y	23,196	37,234	9	24 (12–44)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	182,869	283,252	78	28 (22–34)	1.11 (0.56–2.21)	0.770	1.08 (0.54–2.15)	0.834

*HR, hazard ratio; IR, incidence rate, cases/100,000 persons/y; NA, not applicable; PY, person-years; WASH, water sanitation and hygiene. †Adjusted by age and sex.

Main Article

¹These first authors contributed equally to this article.

²Thes authors contributed as joint senior authors.

Page created: August 12, 2025

Page updated: September 25, 2025

Page reviewed: September 25, 2025

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