Table 3

Volume 31, Number 10—October 2025

Comparative Epidemiology of Salmonella enterica Serovers Paratyphi A and Typhi Causing Enteric Fever, Bangladesh, 2018–2020

Sadia Isfat Ara Rahman¹

, Md Golam Firoj¹, Se Eun Park¹, Farhana Khanam¹, Suneth Agampodi¹, Kassa Haile¹, Edilawit Mesfin, Faisal Ahmmed, Md Taufiqul Islam, Ashraful Islam Khan, Fahima Chowdhury, Afroza Akter, Martin Bundi Mwebia, Justin Im, Natasha Y. Rickett, Cecilia Kathure Mbae, Asma Binte Aziz, Beatrice Ongadi, Moses Mwangi, Benjamin Ngugi, Meseret Gebre Behute, Kelvin Kering, Suman Kanungo, Xinxue Liu, Deok Ryun Kim, Andrew J. Pollard, K Zaman², Samuel Kariuki², Firdausi Qadri², and John D. Clemens²

Author affiliation: icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh (S.I.A. Rahman, M.G. Firoj, F. Khanam, F. Ahmmed, M.T. Islam, A.I. Khan, F. Chowdhury, A. Akter, K. Zaman, F. Qadri, J.D. Clemens); Yonsei University Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul, South Korea (S.E. Park); International Vaccine Institute, Seoul (S.E. Park, S. Agampodi, N.Y. Rickett, A.B. Aziz, M.G. Behute, D.R. Kim, J.D. Clemens); Armauer Hansen Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (K. Haile, E. Mesfin); Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya (M.B. Mwebia, C.K. Mbae, B. Ongadi, M. Mwangi, B. Ngugi, K. Kering, S. Kariuki); RIGHT Foundation, Seoul (J. Im); ICMR, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India (S. Kanungo); University of Oxford, Oxford, UK (X. Liu, A.J. Pollard); NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre and Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford (A.J. Pollard); UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA (J.D. Clemens); Korea University Vaccine Innovation Center, Seoul (J.D. Clemens)

Main Article

Associations between sociodemographic and WaSH characteristics and the occurrence of Salmonella Typhi disease in the closed cohort in epidemiologic study of Salmonella Paratyphi A and Salmonella Typhi, Bangladesh, 2018–2020*

Characteristic	Participants	PY	No. cases	IR (95% CI)	Crude HR	p value	Adjusted HR†	p value
Religion
Muslim	102,187	159,289	323	203 (182–226)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
Others	1,029	1,501	0	0 (0–164)	0 (0–∞)	>0.999	0 (0–∞)	>0.999
Monthly expenditure
Below median	51,644	78,813	149	189 (160–221)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
Median or above	51,572	81,976	174	212 (182–246)	1.15 (0.91–1.45)	0.234	1.18 (0.94–1.49)	0.160
Toilet facility: private
Y	43,869	72,368	105	145 (119–175)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	59,347	88,422	218	247 (215–281)	1.67 (1.31–2.13)	<0.001	1.55 (1.22–1.98)	<0.001
Adult toilet: flush toilet
Y	5,002	8,055	18	223 (137–346)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	98,214	152,735	305	200 (178–223)	0.89 (0.54–1.45)	0.630	0.85 (0.52–1.4)	0.533
Child toilet: flush toilet
Y	410	689	1	145 (13–677)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	102,806	160,101	322	201 (180–224)	1.44 (0.2–10.32)	0.717	2.23 (0.31–16.05)	0.425
Source of drinking water: private tap, well or pump; water vendor
Y	32,110	52,266	78	149 (119–185)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	71,106	108,524	245	226 (199–255)	1.53 (1.17–1.99)	0.002	1.4 (1.07–1.82)	0.013
Treated cleaning water
Y	314	499	1	200 (18–934)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	102,902	160,291	322	201 (180–224)	1 (0.14–7.14)	0.999	1.01 (0.14–7.23)	0.992
Hand wash before taking meal
Y	71,253	112,173	220	196 (171–223)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	31,963	48,616	103	212 (174–256)	1.07 (0.83–1.38)	0.594	1.05 (0.82–1.35)	0.707
Hand wash after defecation
Y	100,523	156,548	314	201 (179–224)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	2,693	4,241	9	212 (105–387)	0.87 (0.43–1.76)	0.698	0.81 (0.4–1.65)	0.568
Handwashing water available in household
Y	99,578	155,046	308	199 (177–222)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	3,638	5,744	15	261 (153–420)	1.31 (0.74–2.3)	0.358	1.3 (0.74–2.29)	0.363
Handwashing soap available in household
Y	101,581	158,246	318	201 (180–224)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	1,635	2,543	5	197 (75–431)	0.88 (0.34–2.28)	0.787	0.86 (0.33–2.22)	0.749
Waste disposal place: fixed disposal
Y	97,714	152,047	307	202 (180–225)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	5,502	8,743	16	183 (109–290)	0.92 (0.53–1.62)	0.782	0.85 (0.48–1.49)	0.574
Distance to drinking water source: shorter than median distance
Y	53,075	82,428	167	203 (174–235)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	50,141	78,362	156	199 (170–232)	1.01 (0.8–1.27)	0.926	0.97 (0.77–1.22)	0.821
Water filter available in household
Y	11,804	19,125	30	157 (108–221)	Referent	NA	Referent	NA
N	91,412	141,665	293	207 (184–232)	1.31 (0.89–1.92)	0.168	1.27 (0.87–1.87)	0.218

*HR, hazard ratio; IR, incidence rate, cases/100,000 persons/year; PY, person-years; WASH, water sanitation and hygiene. †Adjusted by age and sex.

Main Article

¹These first authors contributed equally to this article.

²Thes authors contributed as joint senior authors.

Page created: August 12, 2025

Page updated: September 25, 2025

Page reviewed: September 25, 2025

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