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Issue Cover for Volume 3, Number 4—December 1997

Volume 3, Number 4—December 1997

[PDF - 3.83 MB - 159 pages]

THEME ISSUE
Foodborne
Special Issue

About the National Conference on Emerging Foodborne Pathogens: Implications and Control [PDF - 11 KB - 1 page]
EID About the National Conference on Emerging Foodborne Pathogens: Implications and Control. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):415. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970401
AMA About the National Conference on Emerging Foodborne Pathogens: Implications and Control. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):415. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970401.
APA (1997). About the National Conference on Emerging Foodborne Pathogens: Implications and Control. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 415. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970401.

Infectious Disease as an Evolutionary Paradigm [PDF - 76 KB - 7 pages]
J. Lederberg
EID Lederberg J. Infectious Disease as an Evolutionary Paradigm. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):417-423. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970402
AMA Lederberg J. Infectious Disease as an Evolutionary Paradigm. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):417-423. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970402.
APA Lederberg, J. (1997). Infectious Disease as an Evolutionary Paradigm. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 417-423. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970402.
Factors that Influence the Emergence or Reemergence and Dissemination of Microbial Foodborne Pathogens and Human Disease

Emerging Foodborne Diseases: An Evolving Public Health Challenge [PDF - 106 KB - 10 pages]
R. V. Tauxe

The epidemiology of foodborne disease is changing. New pathogens have emerged, and some have spread worldwide. Many, including Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Campylobacter, and Yersinia enterocolitica, have reservoirs in healthy food animals, from which they spread to an increasing variety of foods. These pathogens cause millions of cases of sporadic illness and chronic complications, as well as large and challenging outbreaks over many states and nations. Improved surveillance that combines rapid subtyping methods, cluster identification, and collaborative epidemiologic investigation can identify and halt large, dispersed outbreaks. Outbreak investigations and case-control studies of sporadic cases can identify sources of infection and guide the development of specific prevention strategies. Better understanding of how pathogens persist in animal reservoirs is also critical to successful long-term prevention. In the past, the central challenge of foodborne disease lay in preventing the contamination of human food with sewage or animal manure. In the future, prevention of foodborne disease will increasingly depend on controlling contamination of feed and water consumed by the animals themselves.

EID Tauxe RV. Emerging Foodborne Diseases: An Evolving Public Health Challenge. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):425-434. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970403
AMA Tauxe RV. Emerging Foodborne Diseases: An Evolving Public Health Challenge. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):425-434. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970403.
APA Tauxe, R. V. (1997). Emerging Foodborne Diseases: An Evolving Public Health Challenge. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 425-434. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970403.

Emergence of New Pathogens as a Function of Changes in Host Susceptibility [PDF - 139 KB - 7 pages]
J. Morris and M. Potter

A pathogen may emerge as an important public health problem because of changes in itself or its transmission pathways. Alternatively, a microorganism may emerge as a pathogen or acquire new public health importance because of changes in host susceptibility to infection. Factors influencing host susceptibility within the population as a whole include increases in the number of immunocompromised patients; increased use of immunosuppressive agents, particularly among persons receiving cancer chemotherapy or undergoing organ transplantation; aging of the population; and malnutrition. In considering the emergence of foodborne pathogens and designing interventions to limit their spread, the susceptibility of these population subgroups to specific infections should be taken into account.

EID Morris J, Potter M. Emergence of New Pathogens as a Function of Changes in Host Susceptibility. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):435-441. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970404
AMA Morris J, Potter M. Emergence of New Pathogens as a Function of Changes in Host Susceptibility. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):435-441. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970404.
APA Morris, J., & Potter, M. (1997). Emergence of New Pathogens as a Function of Changes in Host Susceptibility. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 435-441. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970404.

Chronic Sequelae of Foodborne Disease [PDF - 48 KB - 10 pages]
J. A. Lindsay

In the past decade, the complexity of foodborne pathogens, as well as their adaptability and ability to cause acute illness, and in some cases chronic (secondary) complications, have been newly appreciated. This overview examines long-term consequences of foodborne infections and intoxications to emphasize the need for more research and education.

EID Lindsay JA. Chronic Sequelae of Foodborne Disease. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):443-452. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970405
AMA Lindsay JA. Chronic Sequelae of Foodborne Disease. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):443-452. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970405.
APA Lindsay, J. A. (1997). Chronic Sequelae of Foodborne Disease. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 443-452. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970405.

Public, Animal, and Environmental Health Implications of Aquaculture [PDF - 25 KB - 5 pages]
E. S. Garrett et al.

Aquaculture is important to the United States and the world's fishery system. Both import and export markets for aquaculture products will expand and increase as research begins to remove physiologic and other animal husbandry barriers. Overfishing of wild stock will necessitate supplementation and replenishment through aquaculture. The aquaculture industry must have a better understanding of the impact of the "shrouded" public and animal health issues: technology ignorance, abuse, and neglect. Cross-pollination and cross-training of public health and aquaculture personnel in the effect of public health, animal health, and environmental health on aquaculture are also needed. Future aquaculture development programs require an integrated Gestalt public health approach to ensure that aquaculture does not cause unacceptable risks to public or environmental health and negate the potential economic and nutritional benefits of aquaculture.

EID Garrett ES, Lima dos Santos C, Jahncke ML. Public, Animal, and Environmental Health Implications of Aquaculture. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):453-457. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970406
AMA Garrett ES, Lima dos Santos C, Jahncke ML. Public, Animal, and Environmental Health Implications of Aquaculture. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):453-457. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970406.
APA Garrett, E. S., Lima dos Santos, C., & Jahncke, M. L. (1997). Public, Animal, and Environmental Health Implications of Aquaculture. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 453-457. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970406.

Produce Handling and Processing Practices [PDF - 322 KB - 7 pages]
L. R. Beuchat and J. Ryu

In the past decade, outbreaks of human illness associated with the consumption of raw vegetables and fruits (or unpasteurized products produced from them) have increased in the United States. Changes in agronomic, harvesting, distribution, processing, and consumption patterns and practices have undoubtedly contributed to this increase. Pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium botulinum, and Bacillus cereus are naturally present in some soil, and their presence on fresh produce is not rare. Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Campylobacter jejuni, Vibrio cholerae, parasites, and viruses are more likely to contaminate fresh produce through vehicles such as raw or improperly composted manure, irrigation water containing untreated sewage, or contaminated wash water. Contact with mammals, reptiles, fowl, insects, and unpasteurized products of animal origin offers another avenue through which pathogens can access produce. Surfaces, including human hands, which come in contact with whole or cut produce represent potential points of contamination throughout the total system of growing, harvesting, packing, processing, shipping, and preparing produce for consumption. Treatment of produce with chlorinated water reduces populations of pathogenic and other microorganisms on fresh produce but cannot eliminate them. Reduction of risk for human illness associated with raw produce can be better achieved through controlling points of potential contamination in the field; during harvesting; during processing or distribution; or in retail markets, food-service facilities, or the home.

EID Beuchat LR, Ryu J. Produce Handling and Processing Practices. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):459-465. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970407
AMA Beuchat LR, Ryu J. Produce Handling and Processing Practices. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):459-465. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970407.
APA Beuchat, L. R., & Ryu, J. (1997). Produce Handling and Processing Practices. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 459-465. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970407.

The Impact of Consumer Demands and Trends on Food Processing [PDF - 16 KB - 3 pages]
D. L. Zink

In the United States, consumer demand for new foods and changes in eating habits and food safety risks are affecting the food processing industry. The population is becoming older on average; moreover, consumers want fresh and minimally processed foods without synthetic chemical preservatives. To address the need for safer food and compete for consumer acceptance, manufacturers are exploring new food processing and preservation methods.

EID Zink DL. The Impact of Consumer Demands and Trends on Food Processing. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):467-469. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970408
AMA Zink DL. The Impact of Consumer Demands and Trends on Food Processing. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):467-469. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970408.
APA Zink, D. L. (1997). The Impact of Consumer Demands and Trends on Food Processing. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 467-469. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970408.

Impact of Changing Consumer Lifestyles on the Emergence/Reemergence of Foodborne Pathogens [PDF - 83 KB - 9 pages]
J. E. Collins

Foodborne illness of microbial origin is the most serious food safety problem in the United States. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that 79% of outbreaks between 1987 and 1992 were bacterial; improper holding temperature and poor personal hygiene of food handlers contributed most to disease incidence. Some microbes have demonstrated resistance to standard methods of preparation and storage of foods. Nonetheless, food safety and public health officials attribute a rise in incidence of foodborne illness to changes in demographics and consumer lifestyles that affect the way food is prepared and stored. Food editors report that fewer than 50% of consumers are concerned about food safety. An American Meat Institute (1996) study details lifestyle changes affecting food behavior, including an increasing number of women in the workforce, limited commitment to food preparation, and a greater number of single heads of households. Consumers appear to be more interested in convenience and saving time than in proper food handling and preparation.

EID Collins JE. Impact of Changing Consumer Lifestyles on the Emergence/Reemergence of Foodborne Pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):471-479. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970409
AMA Collins JE. Impact of Changing Consumer Lifestyles on the Emergence/Reemergence of Foodborne Pathogens. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):471-479. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970409.
APA Collins, J. E. (1997). Impact of Changing Consumer Lifestyles on the Emergence/Reemergence of Foodborne Pathogens. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 471-479. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970409.
Identifying and Anticipating New Foodborne Microbial Hazards

Historical Overview of Key Issues in Food Safety [PDF - 15 KB - 2 pages]
E. M. Foster

Foodborne transmission of pathogenic and toxigenic microorganisms has been a recognized hazard for decades. Even half a century ago we knew about the dangers of botulism from underprocessed canned foods; staphylococcal poisoning from unrefrigerated cream-filled pastries, sliced ham, meat, and poultry salads; and salmonellosis from infected animal products. Despite new protective measures, changes in preservation techniques and failure to follow recognized procedures have created new dangers. Moreover, we now recognize new organisms that can cause foodborne illness—Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Campylobacter jejuni, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Yersinia enterocolitica, and others. Controlling these organisms will require widespread education and possibly new regulatory initiatives.

EID Foster EM. Historical Overview of Key Issues in Food Safety. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):481-482. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970410
AMA Foster EM. Historical Overview of Key Issues in Food Safety. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):481-482. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970410.
APA Foster, E. M. (1997). Historical Overview of Key Issues in Food Safety. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 481-482. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970410.

Quantitative Risk Assessment: An Emerging Tool for Emerging Foodborne Pathogens [PDF - 27 KB - 5 pages]
A. M. Lammerding and G. M. Paoli

New challenges to the safety of the food supply require new strategies for evaluating and managing food safety risks. Changes in pathogens, food preparation, distribution, and consumption, and population immunity have the potential to adversely affect human health. Risk assessment offers a framework for predicting the impact of changes and trends on the provision of safe food. Risk assessment models facilitate the evaluation of active or passive changes in how foods are produced, processed, distributed, and consumed.

EID Lammerding AM, Paoli GM. Quantitative Risk Assessment: An Emerging Tool for Emerging Foodborne Pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):483-487. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970411
AMA Lammerding AM, Paoli GM. Quantitative Risk Assessment: An Emerging Tool for Emerging Foodborne Pathogens. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):483-487. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970411.
APA Lammerding, A. M., & Paoli, G. M. (1997). Quantitative Risk Assessment: An Emerging Tool for Emerging Foodborne Pathogens. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 483-487. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970411.

Communicating Foodborne Disease Risk [PDF - 572 KB - 7 pages]
B. Fischhoff and J. S. Downs

The food industry, like many others, has a risk communication problem. That problem is manifested in the public's desire to know the truth about outbreaks of foodborne diseases; ongoing concern about the safety of foods, additives, and food-processing procedures; and continued apathy regarding aspects of routine food hygiene. If these concerns are addressed in a coherent and trustworthy way, the public will have better and cheaper food. However, sloppy risk communication can itself cause public health damage. Because citizens are ill-equipped to discriminate among information sources, the food industry as a whole bears responsibility for the successes and failures of its individual members. We review risk communication research and practice for their application to the food industry.

EID Fischhoff B, Downs JS. Communicating Foodborne Disease Risk. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):489-495. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970412
AMA Fischhoff B, Downs JS. Communicating Foodborne Disease Risk. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):489-495. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970412.
APA Fischhoff, B., & Downs, J. S. (1997). Communicating Foodborne Disease Risk. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 489-495. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970412.

Animal Diseases of Public Health Importance [PDF - 28 KB - 6 pages]
G. D. Orriss

The Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) interest in emerging diseases caused by foodborne pathogens derives from its role as the leading United Nations agency with a mandate for food quality and safety matters. The Food Quality and Standards Service of FAO's Food and Nutrition Division is active in all areas related to food safety and implements the FAO/World Health Organization Food Standards Program. Its activities include providing assistance to FAO's member nations in addressing problems, strengthening infrastructure, promoting standardization as a means of facilitating trade, and safeguarding the interests of consumers. This paper considers the importance of emerging foodborne diseases from the perspectives of the consumer, international trade in food, producers and processors, and developing countries and addresses prevention and control measures.

EID Orriss GD. Animal Diseases of Public Health Importance. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):497-502. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970413
AMA Orriss GD. Animal Diseases of Public Health Importance. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):497-502. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970413.
APA Orriss, G. D. (1997). Animal Diseases of Public Health Importance. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 497-502. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970413.

Foodborne Disease Control: A Transnational Challenge [PDF - 463 KB - 8 pages]
F. K. Käferstein et al.

In the globalized political economy of the late 20th century, increasing social, political, and economic interdependence is occurring as a result of the rapid movement of people, images, values, and financial transactions across national borders. Another consequence of the increase in transnational trade, travel, and migration is the greater risk of cross-border transmission of infectious diseases. As the world becomes more interconnected, diseases spread more rapidly and effectively. With more than one million people crossing international borders every day, and with the globalization of food production, manufacturing, and marketing, the risk of infectious disease transmission is greater. Economic globalization has also increased the need for governmental budget austerity, and consequent national preparedness has been eroded. The emergence of new infectious diseases, as well as the reemergence of old ones, thus represents a crucial transnational policy issue. These problems cannot be resolved by national governments alone; they require international cooperation. This article analyzes the role of foodborne disease surveillance programs, nationally and internationally, in the control of foodborne diseases.

EID Käferstein FK, Motarjemi Y, Bettcher DW. Foodborne Disease Control: A Transnational Challenge. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):503-510. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970414
AMA Käferstein FK, Motarjemi Y, Bettcher DW. Foodborne Disease Control: A Transnational Challenge. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):503-510. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970414.
APA Käferstein, F. K., Motarjemi, Y., & Bettcher, D. W. (1997). Foodborne Disease Control: A Transnational Challenge. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 503-510. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970414.
Controlling Emerging Foodborne Microbial Hazards

Consumer Concerns: Motivating to Action [PDF - 27 KB - 5 pages]
C. M. Bruhn

Microbiologic safety is consumers' most frequently volunteered food safety concern. An increase in the level of concern in recent years suggests that consumers are more receptive to educational information. However, changing lifestyles have lessened the awareness of foodborne illness, especially among younger consumers. Failure to fully recognize the symptoms or sources of foodborne disease prevents consumers from taking corrective action. Consumer education messages should include the ubiquity of microorganisms, a comprehensive description of foodborne illnesses, and prevention strategies. Product labels should contain food-handling information and warnings for special populations, and foods processed by newer safety-enhancing technologies should be more widely available. Knowledge of the consequences of unsafe practices can enhance motivation and adherence to safety guidelines. When consumers mishandle food during preparation, the health community, food industry, regulators, and the media are ultimately responsible. Whether inappropriate temperature control, poor hygiene, or another factor, the error occurs because consumers have not been informed about how to handle food and protect themselves. The food safety message has not been delivered effectively.

EID Bruhn CM. Consumer Concerns: Motivating to Action. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):511-515. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970415
AMA Bruhn CM. Consumer Concerns: Motivating to Action. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):511-515. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970415.
APA Bruhn, C. M. (1997). Consumer Concerns: Motivating to Action. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 511-515. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970415.

Indentifying and Controlling Emerging Foodborne Pathogens: Research Need [PDF - 26 KB - 5 pages]
R. L. Buchanan

Systems for managing the risks associated with foodborne pathogens are based on detailed knowledge of the microorganisms and the foods with which they are associated—known hazards. An emerging pathogen, however, is an unknown hazard; therefore, to control it, key data must be acquired to convert the pathogen from an unknown to a known hazard. The types of information required are similar despite the identity of the new agent. The key to rapid control is rapid mobilization of research capabilities targeted at addressing critical knowledge gaps. In addition, longer-term research is needed to improve our ability to respond quickly to new microbial threats and help us become more proactive at anticipating and preventing emergence. The type of contingency planning used by the military in anticipating new threats serves as a useful framework for planning for new emergence.

EID Buchanan RL. Indentifying and Controlling Emerging Foodborne Pathogens: Research Need. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):517-521. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970416
AMA Buchanan RL. Indentifying and Controlling Emerging Foodborne Pathogens: Research Need. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):517-521. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970416.
APA Buchanan, R. L. (1997). Indentifying and Controlling Emerging Foodborne Pathogens: Research Need. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 517-521. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970416.

Maximizing the Usefulness of Food Microbiology Research [PDF - 51 KB - 6 pages]
T. A. Roberts

Funding for food microbiology research often follows disease outbreaks: botulism from vacuum-packed white-fish chubs, listeriosis from soft cheeses, or illness due to Salmonella Enteritidis or Escherichia coli. As a consequence of research, detection, identification, and subtyping methods improve, and more is learned about pathogenicity and virulence. Research also explores the organisms' capacity to multiply or survive in food and to be killed by established or novel processes. However, rarely is there a critical overview of progress or trustworthy statements of generally agreed-on facts. That information is not maintained in a form that can readily be used by regulatory departments and the food industry to ensure a safe food supply. A centralized system is urgently needed that is accessible electronically and carries information in a standardized format on the essential properties of the organisms, including pathogenicity, methods of detection, enumeration and identification, alternative prevention and control methods, and growth and survival characteristics.

EID Roberts TA. Maximizing the Usefulness of Food Microbiology Research. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):523-528. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970417
AMA Roberts TA. Maximizing the Usefulness of Food Microbiology Research. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):523-528. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970417.
APA Roberts, T. A. (1997). Maximizing the Usefulness of Food Microbiology Research. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 523-528. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970417.

Epidemiology and Detection as Options for Control of Viral and Parasitic Foodborne Disease [PDF - 136 KB - 11 pages]
L. Jaykus

Human enteric viruses and protozoal parasites are important causes of emerging food and waterborne disease. Epidemiologic investigation and detection of the agents in clinical, food, and water specimens, which are traditionally used to establish the cause of disease outbreaks, are either cumbersome, expensive, and frequently unavailable or unattempted for the important food and waterborne enteric viruses and protozoa. However, the recent introduction of regulatory testing mandates, alternative testing strategies, and increased epidemiologic surveillance for food and waterborne disease should significantly improve the ability to detect and control these agents. We discuss new methods of investigating foodborne viral and parasitic disease and the future of these methods in recognizing, identifying, and controlling disease agents.

EID Jaykus L. Epidemiology and Detection as Options for Control of Viral and Parasitic Foodborne Disease. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):529-539. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970418
AMA Jaykus L. Epidemiology and Detection as Options for Control of Viral and Parasitic Foodborne Disease. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):529-539. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970418.
APA Jaykus, L. (1997). Epidemiology and Detection as Options for Control of Viral and Parasitic Foodborne Disease. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 529-539. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970418.

Quantitative Microbiology: A Basis for Food Safety [PDF - 55 KB - 9 pages]
T. A. McMeekin et al.

Because microorganisms are easily dispersed, display physiologic diversity, and tolerate extreme conditions, they are ubiquitous and may contaminate and grow in many food products. The behavior of microbial populations in foods (growth, survival, or death) is determined by the properties of the food (e.g., water activity and pH) and the storage conditions (e.g., temperature, relative humidity, and atmosphere). The effect of these properties can be predicted by mathematical models derived from quantitative studies on microbial populations. Temperature abuse is a major factor contributing to foodborne disease; monitoring temperature history during food processing, distribution, and storage is a simple, effective means to reduce the incidence of food poisoning. Interpretation of temperature profiles by computer programs based on predictive models allows informed decisions on the shelf life and safety of foods. In- or on-package temperature indicators require further development to accurately predict microbial behavior. We suggest a basis for a "universal" temperature indicator. This article emphasizes the need to combine kinetic and probability approaches to modeling and suggests a method to define the bacterial growth/no growth interface. Advances in controlling foodborne pathogens depend on understanding the pathogens' physiologic responses to growth constraints, including constraints conferring increased survival capacity.

EID McMeekin TA, Brown J, Krist K, Miles D, Neumeyer K, Nichols D, et al. Quantitative Microbiology: A Basis for Food Safety. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):541-549. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970419
AMA McMeekin TA, Brown J, Krist K, et al. Quantitative Microbiology: A Basis for Food Safety. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):541-549. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970419.
APA McMeekin, T. A., Brown, J., Krist, K., Miles, D., Neumeyer, K., Nichols, D....Soontranon, S. (1997). Quantitative Microbiology: A Basis for Food Safety. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 541-549. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970419.
Strategies for Mobilizing Resources for Rapid Response to Emerging Foodborne Microbial Hazards

Strategies for Rapid Response to Emerging Foodborne Microbial Hazards [PDF - 21 KB - 4 pages]
J. Majkowski

The foodborne outbreak paradigm has shifted. In the past, an outbreak affected a small local population, had a high attack rate, and involved locally prepared food products with limited distribution. Now outbreaks involve larger populations and may be multistate and even international; in many the pathogenic organism has a low infective dose and sometimes is never isolated from the food product. Delay in identifying the causative agent can allow the outbreak to spread, increasing the number of cases. Emergency intervention should be aimed at controlling the outbreak, stopping exposure, and perhaps more importantly, preventing future outbreaks. Using epidemiologic data and investigative techniques may be the answer. Even with clear statistical associations to a contaminated food, one must ensure that the implicated organism could logically and biologically have been responsible for the outbreak.

EID Majkowski J. Strategies for Rapid Response to Emerging Foodborne Microbial Hazards. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):551-554. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970420
AMA Majkowski J. Strategies for Rapid Response to Emerging Foodborne Microbial Hazards. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):551-554. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970420.
APA Majkowski, J. (1997). Strategies for Rapid Response to Emerging Foodborne Microbial Hazards. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 551-554. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970420.

Foodborne Illness: Implications for the Future [PDF - 34 KB - 5 pages]
R. L. Hall

Many outbreaks of foodborne illness, even those involving newly recognized pathogens, could have been avoided if certain precautions had been taken. This article will draw on existing information to suggest realistic measures that, if implemented, are most likely to avert or diminish the impact of new foodborne disease outbreaks.

EID Hall RL. Foodborne Illness: Implications for the Future. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):555-559. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970421
AMA Hall RL. Foodborne Illness: Implications for the Future. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):555-559. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970421.
APA Hall, R. L. (1997). Foodborne Illness: Implications for the Future. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 555-559. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970421.
Volume 3, Number 4—December 1997 - Continued

Dispatches

Vero Cytotoxin-Producing Escherichia coli O157 Outbreaks in England and Wales, 1995: Phenotypic Methods and Genotypic Subtyping [PDF - 68 KB - 5 pages]
G. A. Willshaw et al.

Vero cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 belonging to four phage types (PTs) caused 11 outbreaks of infection in England and Wales in 1995. Outbreak strains of different PTs were distinguishable by DNA-based methods. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis best discriminated among strains belonging to the same PT, distinguishing six of the seven PT2 outbreak strains and both PT49 outbreak strains.

EID Willshaw GA, Smith HR, Cheasty T, Wall PG, Rowe B. Vero Cytotoxin-Producing Escherichia coli O157 Outbreaks in England and Wales, 1995: Phenotypic Methods and Genotypic Subtyping. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):561-565. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970422
AMA Willshaw GA, Smith HR, Cheasty T, et al. Vero Cytotoxin-Producing Escherichia coli O157 Outbreaks in England and Wales, 1995: Phenotypic Methods and Genotypic Subtyping. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):561-565. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970422.
APA Willshaw, G. A., Smith, H. R., Cheasty, T., Wall, P. G., & Rowe, B. (1997). Vero Cytotoxin-Producing Escherichia coli O157 Outbreaks in England and Wales, 1995: Phenotypic Methods and Genotypic Subtyping. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 561-565. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970422.

Genetic Polymorphism Among Cryptosporidium parvum Isolates: Evidence of Two Distinct Human Transmission Cycles [PDF - 233 KB - 7 pages]
M. M. Peng et al.

We report the results of molecular analysis of 39 isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum from human and bovine sources in nine human outbreaks and from bovine sources from a wide geographic distribution. All 39 isolates could be divided into either of two genotypes, on the basis of genetic polymorphism observed at the thrombospondin-related adhesion protein (TRAP-C2) locus. Genotype 1 was observed only in isolates from humans. Genotype 2, however, was seen in calf isolates and in isolates from a subset of human patients who reported direct exposure to infected cattle or consumed items thought to be contaminated with cattle feces. Furthermore, experimental infection studies showed that genotype 2 isolates were infective to mice or calves under routine laboratory conditions, whereas genotype 1 isolates were not. These results support the occurrence of two distinct transmission cycles of C. parvum in humans.

EID Peng MM, Xiao L, Freeman AR, Arrowood MJ, Escalante AA, Weltman AC, et al. Genetic Polymorphism Among Cryptosporidium parvum Isolates: Evidence of Two Distinct Human Transmission Cycles. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):567-573. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970423
AMA Peng MM, Xiao L, Freeman AR, et al. Genetic Polymorphism Among Cryptosporidium parvum Isolates: Evidence of Two Distinct Human Transmission Cycles. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):567-573. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970423.
APA Peng, M. M., Xiao, L., Freeman, A. R., Arrowood, M. J., Escalante, A. A., Weltman, A. C....Beard, C. B. (1997). Genetic Polymorphism Among Cryptosporidium parvum Isolates: Evidence of Two Distinct Human Transmission Cycles. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 567-573. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970423.
Commentaries

Irradiation Pasteurization of Solid Foods: Taking Food Safety to the Next Level [PDF - 19 KB - 3 pages]
M. T. Osterholm and M. E. Potter
EID Osterholm MT, Potter ME. Irradiation Pasteurization of Solid Foods: Taking Food Safety to the Next Level. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):575-577. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970424
AMA Osterholm MT, Potter ME. Irradiation Pasteurization of Solid Foods: Taking Food Safety to the Next Level. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):575-577. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970424.
APA Osterholm, M. T., & Potter, M. E. (1997). Irradiation Pasteurization of Solid Foods: Taking Food Safety to the Next Level. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 575-577. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970424.
Letters

Non-O157 Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Infections in Europe [PDF - 18 KB - 2 pages]
A. Caprioli et al.
EID Caprioli A, Tozzi AE, Rizzoni G, Karch H. Non-O157 Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Infections in Europe. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):578-579. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970425
AMA Caprioli A, Tozzi AE, Rizzoni G, et al. Non-O157 Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Infections in Europe. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):578-579. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970425.
APA Caprioli, A., Tozzi, A. E., Rizzoni, G., & Karch, H. (1997). Non-O157 Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Infections in Europe. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 578-579. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970425.

The Taxonomy of Cyclospora [PDF - 12 KB - 1 page]
W. C. Marquardt
EID Marquardt WC. The Taxonomy of Cyclospora. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):579. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970426
AMA Marquardt WC. The Taxonomy of Cyclospora. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):579. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970426.
APA Marquardt, W. C. (1997). The Taxonomy of Cyclospora. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 579. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970426.

Reply to W.C. Marquardt [PDF - 13 KB - 2 pages]
N. J. Pieniazek and B. L. Herwaldt
EID Pieniazek NJ, Herwaldt BL. Reply to W.C. Marquardt. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):579-580. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970427
AMA Pieniazek NJ, Herwaldt BL. Reply to W.C. Marquardt. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):579-580. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970427.
APA Pieniazek, N. J., & Herwaldt, B. L. (1997). Reply to W.C. Marquardt. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 579-580. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970427.
About the Cover

Bloemstilleven, Floral Still Life (detail)
Corrections

Corrections Vol. 3, No. 1, 3 [PDF - 28 KB - 1 page]
EID Corrections Vol. 3, No. 1, 3. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):584. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970430
AMA Corrections Vol. 3, No. 1, 3. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):584. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970430.
APA (1997). Corrections Vol. 3, No. 1, 3. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 584. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970430.
News and Notes

Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) [PDF - 62 KB - 3 pages]
EID Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet). Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):581-583. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970428
AMA Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet). Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):581-583. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970428.
APA (1997). Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet). Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 581-583. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970428.

International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases [PDF - 53 KB - 1 page]
EID International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997;3(4):583. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970429
AMA International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997;3(4):583. doi:10.3201/eid0304.970429.
APA (1997). International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3(4), 583. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0304.970429.
Page created: September 07, 2011
Page updated: June 18, 2012
Page reviewed: June 18, 2012
The conclusions, findings, and opinions expressed by authors contributing to this journal do not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Public Health Service, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or the authors' affiliated institutions. Use of trade names is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by any of the groups named above.
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