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Issue Cover for Volume 7, Number 2—April 2001

Volume 7, Number 2—April 2001

[PDF - 2.62 MB - 205 pages]

THEME ISSUE
4th Decennial International Conference on Nosocomial and Healthcare-Associated Infections
Introduction

About the Fourth Decennial International Conference on Nosocomial and Healthcare-Associated Infections [PDF - 101 KB - 1 page]
S. L. Solomon
EID Solomon SL. About the Fourth Decennial International Conference on Nosocomial and Healthcare-Associated Infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):169. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700169
AMA Solomon SL. About the Fourth Decennial International Conference on Nosocomial and Healthcare-Associated Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):169. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700169.
APA Solomon, S. L. (2001). About the Fourth Decennial International Conference on Nosocomial and Healthcare-Associated Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 169. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700169.

Infection Control and Changing Health-Care Delivery Systems [PDF - 78 KB - 4 pages]
W. R. Jarvis

In the past, health care was delivered mainly in acute-care facilities. Today, health care is delivered in hospital, outpatient, transitional care, long-term care, rehabilitative care, home, and private office settings. Measures to reduce health-care costs include decreasing the number of hospitals and the length of patient stays, increasing outpatient and home care, and increasing long-term care for the elderly. The home-care industry and managed care have become major providers of health care. The role of specialists in health-care epidemiology has changed accordingly.

EID Jarvis WR. Infection Control and Changing Health-Care Delivery Systems. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):170-173. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700170
AMA Jarvis WR. Infection Control and Changing Health-Care Delivery Systems. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):170-173. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700170.
APA Jarvis, W. R. (2001). Infection Control and Changing Health-Care Delivery Systems. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 170-173. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700170.

The Impact of Hospital-Acquired Bloodstream Infections [PDF - 77 KB - 4 pages]
R. P. Wenzel and M. B. Edmond

Nosocomial bloodstream infections are a leading cause of death in the United States. If we assume a nosocomial infection rate of 5%, of which 10% are bloodstream infections, and an attributable mortality rate of 15%, bloodstream infections would represent the eighth leading cause of death in the United States. Because most risk factors for dying after bacteremia or fungemia may not be changeable, prevention efforts must focus on new infection-control technology and techniques.

EID Wenzel RP, Edmond MB. The Impact of Hospital-Acquired Bloodstream Infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):174-177. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700174
AMA Wenzel RP, Edmond MB. The Impact of Hospital-Acquired Bloodstream Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):174-177. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700174.
APA Wenzel, R. P., & Edmond, M. B. (2001). The Impact of Hospital-Acquired Bloodstream Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 174-177. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700174.

The Changing Epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus? [PDF - 66 KB - 5 pages]
H. F. Chambers

Strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), which had been largely confined to hospitals and long-term care facilities, are emerging in the community. The changing epidemiology of MRSA bears striking similarity to the emergence of penicillinase-mediated resistance in S. aureus decades ago. Even though the origin (hospital or the community) of the emerging MRSA strains is not known, the prevalence of these strains in the community seems likely to increase substantially.

EID Chambers HF. The Changing Epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus?. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):178-182. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700178
AMA Chambers HF. The Changing Epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus?. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):178-182. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700178.
APA Chambers, H. F. (2001). The Changing Epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus?. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 178-182. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700178.

Emergence of Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci [PDF - 62 KB - 5 pages]
L. B. Rice

Vancomycin and ampicillin resistance in clinical Enterococcus faecium strains has developed in the past decade. Failure to adhere to strict infection control to prevent the spread of these pathogens has been well established. New data implicate the use of specific classes of antimicrobial agents in the spread of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). Extended-spectrum cephalosporins and drugs with potent activity against anaerobic bacteria may promote infection and colonization with VRE and may exert different effects on the initial establishment and persistence of high-density colonization. Control of VRE will require better understanding of the mechanisms by which different classes of drugs promote gastrointestinal colonization.

EID Rice LB. Emergence of Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):183-187. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700183
AMA Rice LB. Emergence of Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):183-187. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700183.
APA Rice, L. B. (2001). Emergence of Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 183-187. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700183.

Controlling Antimicrobial Resistance in Hospitals: Infection Control and Use of Antibiotics [PDF - 82 KB - 5 pages]
R. A. Weinstein

Antimicrobial-drug resistance in hospitals is driven by failures of hospital hygiene, selective pressures created by overuse of antibiotics, and mobile genetic elements that can encode bacterial resistance mechanisms. Attention to hand hygiene is constrained by the time it takes to wash hands and by the adverse effects of repeated handwashing on the skin. Alcohol-based hand rubs can overcome the time problem and actually improve skin condition. Universal gloving could close gaps left by incomplete adherence to hand hygiene. Various interventions have been described to improve antibiotic use. The most effective have been programs restricting use of antibiotics and computer-based order forms for health providers.

EID Weinstein RA. Controlling Antimicrobial Resistance in Hospitals: Infection Control and Use of Antibiotics. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):188-192. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700188
AMA Weinstein RA. Controlling Antimicrobial Resistance in Hospitals: Infection Control and Use of Antibiotics. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):188-192. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700188.
APA Weinstein, R. A. (2001). Controlling Antimicrobial Resistance in Hospitals: Infection Control and Use of Antibiotics. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 188-192. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700188.
Prevention is Primary

Impact of Hospital Care on Incidence of Bloodstream Infection: The Evaluation of Processes and Indicators in Infection Control Study [PDF - 42 KB - 4 pages]
S. B. Kritchevsky et al.

The Evaluation of Processes and Indicators in Infection Control (EPIC) study assesses the relationship between hospital care and rates of central venous catheter-associated primary bacteremia in 54 intensive-care units (ICUs) in the United States and 14 other countries. Using ICU rather than the patient as the primary unit of statistical analysis permits evaluation of factors that vary at the ICU level. The design of EPIC can serve as a template for studies investigating the relationship between process and event rates across health-care institutions.

EID Kritchevsky SB, Braun BI, Wong ES, Solomon SL, Steele L, Richards C, et al. Impact of Hospital Care on Incidence of Bloodstream Infection: The Evaluation of Processes and Indicators in Infection Control Study. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):193-196. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700193
AMA Kritchevsky SB, Braun BI, Wong ES, et al. Impact of Hospital Care on Incidence of Bloodstream Infection: The Evaluation of Processes and Indicators in Infection Control Study. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):193-196. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700193.
APA Kritchevsky, S. B., Braun, B. I., Wong, E. S., Solomon, S. L., Steele, L., Richards, C....Simmons, B. P. (2001). Impact of Hospital Care on Incidence of Bloodstream Infection: The Evaluation of Processes and Indicators in Infection Control Study. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 193-196. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700193.

New Technologies to Prevent Intravascular Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections [PDF - 46 KB - 3 pages]
L. A. Mermel

Most intravascular catheter-related infections are associated with central venous catheters. Technologic advances shown to reduce the risk for these infections include a catheter hub containing an iodinated alcohol solution, short-term chlorhexidine-silver sulfadiazine-impregnated catheters, minocycline-rifampin-impregnated catheters, and chlorhexidine-impregnated spong dressings. Nontechnologic strategies for reducing risk include maximal barrier precautions during catheter insertion, specialized nursing teams, continuing quality improvement programs, and tunneling of short-term internal jugular catheters.

EID Mermel LA. New Technologies to Prevent Intravascular Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):197-199. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700197
AMA Mermel LA. New Technologies to Prevent Intravascular Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):197-199. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700197.
APA Mermel, L. A. (2001). New Technologies to Prevent Intravascular Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 197-199. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700197.

Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia or Not? Contemporary Diagnosis [PDF - 50 KB - 5 pages]
C. G. Mayhall

Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is pneumonia in patients who have been on mechanical ventilation for >48 hours. VAP is most accurately diagnosed by quantitative culture and microscopic examination of lower respiratory tract secretions, which are best obtained by bronchoscopically directed techniques such as the protected specimen brush and bronchoalveolar lavage. These techniques have acceptable repeatability, and interpretation of results is unaffected by antibiotics administered concurrently for infection at extrapulmonary sites as long as antimicrobial therapy has not been changed for <72 hours before bronchoscopy.

EID Mayhall CG. Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia or Not? Contemporary Diagnosis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):200-204. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700200
AMA Mayhall CG. Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia or Not? Contemporary Diagnosis. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):200-204. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700200.
APA Mayhall, C. G. (2001). Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia or Not? Contemporary Diagnosis. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 200-204. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700200.

Preventing Infections in Non-Hospital Settings: Long-Term Care [PDF - 46 KB - 3 pages]
L. E. Nicolle

Infection concerns in long-term care facilities include endemic infections, outbreaks, and colonization and infection with antimicrobial-drug resistant microorganisms. Infection control programs are now used in most long-term care facilities, but their impact on infections has not been rigorously evaluated. Preventive strategies need to address the changing complexity of care in these facilities, e.g., the increased use of invasive devices. The anticipated increase in the elderly population in the next several decades makes prevention of infection in long-term care facilities a priority.

EID Nicolle LE. Preventing Infections in Non-Hospital Settings: Long-Term Care. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):205-207. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700205
AMA Nicolle LE. Preventing Infections in Non-Hospital Settings: Long-Term Care. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):205-207. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700205.
APA Nicolle, L. E. (2001). Preventing Infections in Non-Hospital Settings: Long-Term Care. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 205-207. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700205.

Infection Control in Home Care [PDF - 44 KB - 4 pages]
E. Rhinehart

Although home care has expanded in scope and intensity in the United States in the past decade, infection surveillance, prevention, and control efforts have lagged behind. Valid and reliable definitions and methods for surveillance are needed. Prevention and control efforts are largely based upon acute-care practices, many of which may be unnecessary, impractical, and expensive in a home setting. Infectious disease control principles should form the basis of training home-care providers to assess infection risk and develop prevention strategies.

EID Rhinehart E. Infection Control in Home Care. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):208-211. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700208
AMA Rhinehart E. Infection Control in Home Care. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):208-211. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700208.
APA Rhinehart, E. (2001). Infection Control in Home Care. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 208-211. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700208.

Automated Methods for Surveillance of Surgical Site Infections [PDF - 58 KB - 5 pages]
R. Platt et al.

Automated data, especially from pharmacy and administrative claims, are available for much of the U.S. population and might substantially improve both inpatient and postdischarge surveillance for surgical site infections complicating selected procedures, while reducing the resources required. Potential improvements include better sensitivity, less susceptibility to interobserver variation, more uniform availability of data, more precise estimates of infection rates, and better adjustment for patients' coexisting illness.

EID Platt R, Yokoe DS, Sands KE. Automated Methods for Surveillance of Surgical Site Infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):212-216. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700212
AMA Platt R, Yokoe DS, Sands KE. Automated Methods for Surveillance of Surgical Site Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):212-216. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700212.
APA Platt, R., Yokoe, D. S., & Sands, K. E. (2001). Automated Methods for Surveillance of Surgical Site Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 212-216. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700212.

New Surgical Techniques and Surgical Site Infections [PDF - 80 KB - 3 pages]
S. M. Gordon

Technologic advances in surgery include a trend toward less invasive procedures, driven by potential benefits to patients and by health care economics. These less invasive procedures provide infection control personnel opportunities for direct involvement in outcomes measurement.

EID Gordon SM. New Surgical Techniques and Surgical Site Infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):217-219. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700217
AMA Gordon SM. New Surgical Techniques and Surgical Site Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):217-219. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700217.
APA Gordon, S. M. (2001). New Surgical Techniques and Surgical Site Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 217-219. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700217.

Preventing Surgical Site Infections: A Surgeon's Perspective
R. L. Nichols

Wound site infections are a major source of postoperative illness, accounting for approximately a quarter of all nosocomial infections. National studies have defined the patients at highest risk for infection in general and in many specific operative procedures. Advances in risk assessment comparison may involve use of the standardized infection ratio, procedure-specific risk factor collection, and logistic regression models. Adherence to recommendations in the 1999 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines should reduce the incidence of infection in surgical patients.

EID Nichols RL. Preventing Surgical Site Infections: A Surgeon's Perspective. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):220-224. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700220
AMA Nichols RL. Preventing Surgical Site Infections: A Surgeon's Perspective. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):220-224. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700220.
APA Nichols, R. L. (2001). Preventing Surgical Site Infections: A Surgeon's Perspective. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 220-224. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700220.

Hygiene of the Skin: When Is Clean Too Clean? [PDF - 62 KB - 6 pages]
E. Larson

Skin hygiene, particularly of the hands, is a primary mechanism for reducing contact and fecal-oral transmission of infectious agents. Widespread use of antimicrobial products has prompted concern about emergence of resistance to antiseptics and damage to the skin barrier associated with frequent washing. This article reviews evidence for the relationship between skin hygiene and infection, the effects of washing on skin integrity, and recommendations for skin care practices.

EID Larson E. Hygiene of the Skin: When Is Clean Too Clean?. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):225-230. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700225
AMA Larson E. Hygiene of the Skin: When Is Clean Too Clean?. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):225-230. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700225.
APA Larson, E. (2001). Hygiene of the Skin: When Is Clean Too Clean?. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 225-230. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700225.

Antiseptic Technology: Access, Affordability, and Acceptance [PDF - 55 KB - 3 pages]
J. M. Boyce

Factors other than antimicrobial activity of soaps and antiseptic agents used for hand hygiene by health personnel play a role in compliance with recommendations. Hand hygiene products differ considerably in acceptance by hospital personnel. If switching from a nonmedicated soap to an antiseptic agent or increased use of an existing antiseptic agent for hand hygiene prevented a few more infections per year, additional expenditures for antiseptic agents would be offset by cost savings.

EID Boyce JM. Antiseptic Technology: Access, Affordability, and Acceptance. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):231-233. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700231
AMA Boyce JM. Antiseptic Technology: Access, Affordability, and Acceptance. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):231-233. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700231.
APA Boyce, J. M. (2001). Antiseptic Technology: Access, Affordability, and Acceptance. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 231-233. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700231.

Improving Adherence to Hand Hygiene Practice: A Multidisciplinary Approach [PDF - 67 KB - 7 pages]
D. Pittet

Hand hygiene prevents cross-infection in hospitals, but health-care workers' adherence to guidelines is poor. Easy, timely access to both hand hygiene and skin protection is necessary for satisfactory hand hygiene behavior. Alcohol-based hand rubs may be better than traditional handwashing as they require less time, act faster, are less irritating, and contribute to sustained improvement in compliance associated with decreased infection rates. This article reviews barriers to appropriate hand hygiene and risk factors for noncompliance and proposes strategies for promoting hand hygiene.

EID Pittet D. Improving Adherence to Hand Hygiene Practice: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):234-240. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700234
AMA Pittet D. Improving Adherence to Hand Hygiene Practice: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):234-240. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700234.
APA Pittet, D. (2001). Improving Adherence to Hand Hygiene Practice: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 234-240. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700234.

"Cloud" Health-Care Workers [PDF - 56 KB - 4 pages]
R. J. Sherertz et al.

Certain bacteria dispersed by health-care workers can cause hospital infections. Asymptomatic health-care workers colonized rectally, vaginally, or on the skin with group A streptococci have caused outbreaks of surgical site infection by airborne dispersal. Outbreaks have been associated with skin colonization or viral upper respiratory tract infection in a phenomenon of airborne dispersal of Staphylococcus aureus called the "cloud" phenomenon. This review summarizes the data supporting the existence of cloud health-care workers.

EID Sherertz RJ, Bassetti S, Bassetti-Wyss B. "Cloud" Health-Care Workers. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):241-244. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700241
AMA Sherertz RJ, Bassetti S, Bassetti-Wyss B. "Cloud" Health-Care Workers. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):241-244. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700241.
APA Sherertz, R. J., Bassetti, S., & Bassetti-Wyss, B. (2001). "Cloud" Health-Care Workers. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 241-244. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700241.

Preventing Nosocomial Mycobacterium tuberculosis Transmission in International Settings [PDF - 56 KB - 4 pages]
S. W. Hong

Tuberculosis (TB) is a worldwide disease, and nosocomial transmission is known to occur. Authoritative preventive guidelines such as the one developed by the Centers for Disease Control have been published, but the expenses for implementing them can be prohibitive. Each country needs to develop its own protocol to prevent nosocomial transmission of TB. This article describes the key elements of a protocol undertaken for all public hospitals in Hong Kong, where TB is endemic.

EID Hong SW. Preventing Nosocomial Mycobacterium tuberculosis Transmission in International Settings. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):245-248. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700245
AMA Hong SW. Preventing Nosocomial Mycobacterium tuberculosis Transmission in International Settings. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):245-248. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700245.
APA Hong, S. W. (2001). Preventing Nosocomial Mycobacterium tuberculosis Transmission in International Settings. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 245-248. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700245.

Epidemiology and Prevention of Pediatric Viral Respiratory Infections in Health-Care Institutions [PDF - 55 KB - 5 pages]
D. A. Goldmann

Nosocomial viral respiratory infections cause considerable illness and death on pediatric wards. Common causes of these infections include respiratory syncytial virus and influenza. While primarily a community pathogen, rhinovirus also occasionally results in hospitalization and serious sequelae. This article reviews effective infection control interventions for these three pathogens, as well as ongoing controversies.

EID Goldmann DA. Epidemiology and Prevention of Pediatric Viral Respiratory Infections in Health-Care Institutions. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):249-253. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700249
AMA Goldmann DA. Epidemiology and Prevention of Pediatric Viral Respiratory Infections in Health-Care Institutions. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):249-253. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700249.
APA Goldmann, D. A. (2001). Epidemiology and Prevention of Pediatric Viral Respiratory Infections in Health-Care Institutions. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 249-253. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700249.

HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis in the 21st Century [PDF - 53 KB - 5 pages]
D. K. Henderson

The administration of postexposure prophylaxis has become the standard of care for occupational exposures to HIV. We have learned a great deal about the safety and potential efficacy of these agents, as well as the optimal management of health-care workers occupationally exposed to HIV. This article describes the current state of knowledge in this field, identifies substantive questions to be answered, and summarizes basic principles of postexposure management.

EID Henderson DK. HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis in the 21st Century. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):254-258. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700254
AMA Henderson DK. HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis in the 21st Century. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):254-258. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700254.
APA Henderson, D. K. (2001). HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis in the 21st Century. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 254-258. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700254.

Tuberculosis Control in the 21st Century [PDF - 50 KB - 5 pages]
K. A. Sepkowitz

In response to tuberculosis (TB) outbreaks in the United States in the late 1980s and early 1990s, U.S. hospitals spent tremendous resources to ensure a safer workplace. A remarkable decrease in nosocomial transmission resulted, along with a decrease in TB cases nationally. Federal standards have been promulgated to ensure a safer work environment for all U.S. workers potentially exposed to TB. However, these measures may prove costly and burdensome and thus may compromise the ability to deliver care.

EID Sepkowitz KA. Tuberculosis Control in the 21st Century. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):259-263. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700259
AMA Sepkowitz KA. Tuberculosis Control in the 21st Century. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):259-263. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700259.
APA Sepkowitz, K. A. (2001). Tuberculosis Control in the 21st Century. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 259-263. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700259.

Hospital Infection Control in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients [PDF - 57 KB - 5 pages]
C. A. Dykewicz

Guidelines for Preventing Opportunistic Infections Among Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients contains a section on hospital infection control including evidence-based recommendations regarding ventilation, construction, equipment, plants, play areas and toys, health-care workers, visitors, patient skin and oral care, catheter-related infections, drug-resistant organisms, and specific nosocomial infections. These guidelines are intended to reduce the number and severity of hospital infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients.

EID Dykewicz CA. Hospital Infection Control in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):263-267. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700263
AMA Dykewicz CA. Hospital Infection Control in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):263-267. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700263.
APA Dykewicz, C. A. (2001). Hospital Infection Control in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 263-267. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700263.

Emerging Health Care-Associated Infections in the Geriatric Population [PDF - 51 KB - 4 pages]
L. J. Strausbaugh

The increasing number of persons >65 years of age form a special population at risk for nosocomial and other health care-associated infections. The vulnerability of this age group is related to impaired host defenses such as diminished cell-mediated immunity. Lifestyle considerations, e.g., travel and living arrangements, and residence in nursing homes, can further complicate the clinical picture. The magnitude and diversity of health care-associated infections in the aging population are generating new arenas for prevention and control efforts.

EID Strausbaugh LJ. Emerging Health Care-Associated Infections in the Geriatric Population. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):268-271. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700268
AMA Strausbaugh LJ. Emerging Health Care-Associated Infections in the Geriatric Population. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):268-271. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700268.
APA Strausbaugh, L. J. (2001). Emerging Health Care-Associated Infections in the Geriatric Population. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 268-271. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700268.
State of the Art

Emerging Waterborne Infections in Health-Care Settings [PDF - 55 KB - 5 pages]
A. M. Emmerson

Water is used in vast quantities in health-care premises. Many aquatic microorganisms can survive and flourish in water with minimal nutrients and can be transferred to vulnerable hospital patients in direct (e.g., inhalation, ingestion, surface absorption) and indirect ways (e.g., by instruments and utensils). Many outbreaks of infection or pseudoinfection occur through lack of prevention measures and ignorance of the source and transmission of opportunistic pathogens.

EID Emmerson AM. Emerging Waterborne Infections in Health-Care Settings. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):272-276. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700272
AMA Emmerson AM. Emerging Waterborne Infections in Health-Care Settings. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):272-276. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700272.
APA Emmerson, A. M. (2001). Emerging Waterborne Infections in Health-Care Settings. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 272-276. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700272.

Biofilms and Device-Associated Infections [PDF - 116 KB - 5 pages]
R. M. Donlan

Microorganisms commonly attach to living and nonliving surfaces, including those of indwelling medical devices, and form biofilms made up of extracellular polymers. In this state, microorganisms are highly resistant to antimicrobial treatment and are tenaciously bound to the surface. To better understand and control biofilms on indwelling medical devices, researchers should develop reliable sampling and measurement techniques, investigate the role of biofilms in antimicrobial drug resistance, and establish the link between biofilm contamination and patient infection.

EID Donlan RM. Biofilms and Device-Associated Infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):277-281. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700277
AMA Donlan RM. Biofilms and Device-Associated Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):277-281. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700277.
APA Donlan, R. M. (2001). Biofilms and Device-Associated Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 277-281. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700277.

Applying Economic Principles to Health Care [PDF - 48 KB - 4 pages]
R. D. Scott et al.

Applying economic thinking to an understanding of resource use in patient care is challenging given the complexities of delivering health care in a hospital. Health-care markets lack the characteristics needed to determine a "market" price that reflects the economic value of resources used. However, resource allocation in a hospital can be analyzed by using production theory to determine efficient resource use. The information provided by hospital epidemiologists is critical to understanding health-care production processes used by a hospital and developing economic incentives to promote antibiotic effectiveness and infection control.

EID Scott RD, Solomon SL, McGowan JE. Applying Economic Principles to Health Care. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):282-285. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700282
AMA Scott RD, Solomon SL, McGowan JE. Applying Economic Principles to Health Care. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):282-285. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700282.
APA Scott, R. D., Solomon, S. L., & McGowan, J. E. (2001). Applying Economic Principles to Health Care. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 282-285. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700282.

Economic Impact of Antimicrobial Resistance [PDF - 66 KB - 7 pages]
J. E. McGowan

One reason antimicrobial-drug resistance is of concern is its economic impact, which affects physicians, patients, health-care administrators, pharmaceutical producers, and the public. Measurement of cost and economic impact of programs to minimize antimicrobial-drug resistance is imprecise and incomplete. Studies to describe and evaluate the problem will have to employ new methods and be of large scale to produce information that is broadly applicable.

EID McGowan JE. Economic Impact of Antimicrobial Resistance. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):286-292. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700286
AMA McGowan JE. Economic Impact of Antimicrobial Resistance. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):286-292. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700286.
APA McGowan, J. E. (2001). Economic Impact of Antimicrobial Resistance. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 286-292. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700286.

Cost-Effective Infection Control Success Story: A Case Presentation [PDF - 38 KB - 2 pages]
F. Slater

In a surgical intensive care unit, the 1996-1997 incidence of central catheter-associated bloodstream infections exceeded that of hospitals participating in the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Interventions were implemented, and a cost-benefit analysis was done that led to hiring a vascular catheter care nurse. Subsequent outcome data demonstrated a substantial reduction in central catheter-associated bloodstream infections.

EID Slater F. Cost-Effective Infection Control Success Story: A Case Presentation. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):293-294. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700293
AMA Slater F. Cost-Effective Infection Control Success Story: A Case Presentation. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):293-294. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700293.
APA Slater, F. (2001). Cost-Effective Infection Control Success Story: A Case Presentation. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 293-294. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700293.

Feeding Back Surveillance Data To Prevent Hospital-Acquired Infections [PDF - 47 KB - 4 pages]
R. Gaynes et al.

We describe the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) system. Elements of the system critical for successful reduction of nosocomial infection rates include voluntary participation and confidentiality; standard definitions and protocols; identification of populations at high risk; site-specific, risk-adjusted infection rates comparable across institutions; adequate numbers of trained infection control professionals; dissemination of data to health-care providers; and a link between monitored rates and prevention efforts.

EID Gaynes R, Richards C, Edwards J, Emori TG, Horan T, Alonso-Echanove J, et al. Feeding Back Surveillance Data To Prevent Hospital-Acquired Infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):295-298. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700295
AMA Gaynes R, Richards C, Edwards J, et al. Feeding Back Surveillance Data To Prevent Hospital-Acquired Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):295-298. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700295.
APA Gaynes, R., Richards, C., Edwards, J., Emori, T. G., Horan, T., Alonso-Echanove, J....Tolson, J. (2001). Feeding Back Surveillance Data To Prevent Hospital-Acquired Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 295-298. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700295.

Promoting Quality Through Measurement of Performance and Response: Prevention Success Stories [PDF - 43 KB - 3 pages]
C. Richards et al.

Successful efforts to prevent health-care acquired infections occur daily in U.S. hospitals. However, few of these "prevention success stories" are presented in the medical literature or discussed at professional meetings. Key components of successful prevention efforts include multidisciplinary teams, appropriate educational interventions, and data dissemination to clinical staff.

EID Richards C, Emori TG, Peavy G, Gaynes R. Promoting Quality Through Measurement of Performance and Response: Prevention Success Stories. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):299-301. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700299
AMA Richards C, Emori TG, Peavy G, et al. Promoting Quality Through Measurement of Performance and Response: Prevention Success Stories. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):299-301. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700299.
APA Richards, C., Emori, T. G., Peavy, G., & Gaynes, R. (2001). Promoting Quality Through Measurement of Performance and Response: Prevention Success Stories. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 299-301. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700299.

Clinical Microbiology in Developing Countries [PDF - 49 KB - 4 pages]
L. K. Archibald and L. B. Reller

We review the problem of limited microbiology resources in developing countries. We then demonstrate the feasibility of a cohort-based approach to integrate microbiology, epidemiology, and clinical medicine to survey emerging infections in these countries.

EID Archibald LK, Reller LB. Clinical Microbiology in Developing Countries. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):302-305. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700302
AMA Archibald LK, Reller LB. Clinical Microbiology in Developing Countries. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):302-305. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700302.
APA Archibald, L. K., & Reller, L. B. (2001). Clinical Microbiology in Developing Countries. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 302-305. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700302.

New Technology for Detecting Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens in the Clinical Microbiology Laboratory [PDF - 79 KB - 6 pages]
L. R. Peterson and G. A. Noskin

Northwestern Memorial Hospital instituted in-house molecular typing to rapidly assess microbial clonality and integrated this typing into an infection control program. We compared data on nosocomial infections collected during 24 months before and 60 months after implementing the new program. During the intervention period, infections per 1,000 patient-days fell 13% (p=0.002) and the percentage of hospitalized patients with nosocomial infections decreased 23% (p=0.000006). In our hospital, the percentage of patients with nosocomial infections is 43% below the U.S. rate. Our typing laboratory costs approximately $400,000 per year, a savings of $5.00 for each dollar spent

EID Peterson LR, Noskin GA. New Technology for Detecting Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens in the Clinical Microbiology Laboratory. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):306-311. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700306
AMA Peterson LR, Noskin GA. New Technology for Detecting Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens in the Clinical Microbiology Laboratory. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):306-311. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700306.
APA Peterson, L. R., & Noskin, G. A. (2001). New Technology for Detecting Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens in the Clinical Microbiology Laboratory. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 306-311. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700306.

Molecular Approaches to Diagnosing and Managing Infectious Diseases: Practicality and Costs [PDF - 98 KB - 7 pages]
M. A. Pfaller

As molecular techniques for identifying and detecting microorganisms in the clinical microbiology laboratory have become routine, questions about the cost of these techniques and their contribution to patient care need to be addressed. Molecular diagnosis is most appropriate for infectious agents that are difficult to detect, identify, or test for susceptibility in a timely fashion with conventional methods.

EID Pfaller MA. Molecular Approaches to Diagnosing and Managing Infectious Diseases: Practicality and Costs. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):312-318. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700312
AMA Pfaller MA. Molecular Approaches to Diagnosing and Managing Infectious Diseases: Practicality and Costs. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):312-318. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700312.
APA Pfaller, M. A. (2001). Molecular Approaches to Diagnosing and Managing Infectious Diseases: Practicality and Costs. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 312-318. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700312.

Building Communication Networks: International Network for the Study and Prevention of Emerging Antimicrobial Resistance (INSPEAR)
H. M. Richet et al.

The global nature of antimicrobial resistance and the failure to control the emergence of resistant organisms demand the implementation of a global surveillance program involving both developed and developing countries. Because of the urgent need for infection control interventions and for rapid distribution of information about emerging organisms, we initiated the International Networks for the Study and Prevention of Emerging Antimicrobial Resistance (INSPEAR). Its main objectives are to serve as an early warning system for emerging antimicrobial-drug resistant pathogens, to facilitate rapid distribution of information about emerging multidrug-resistant pathogens to hospitals and public health authorities worldwide, and to serve as a model for the development and implementation of infection control interventions.

EID Richet HM, Mohammed J, McDonald LC, Jarvis WR. Building Communication Networks: International Network for the Study and Prevention of Emerging Antimicrobial Resistance (INSPEAR). Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):319-322. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700319
AMA Richet HM, Mohammed J, McDonald LC, et al. Building Communication Networks: International Network for the Study and Prevention of Emerging Antimicrobial Resistance (INSPEAR). Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):319-322. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700319.
APA Richet, H. M., Mohammed, J., McDonald, L. C., & Jarvis, W. R. (2001). Building Communication Networks: International Network for the Study and Prevention of Emerging Antimicrobial Resistance (INSPEAR). Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 319-322. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700319.

Molecular Epidemiology of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus [PDF - 129 KB - 4 pages]
B. Shopsin and B. N. Kreiswirth

Subtyping methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates and tracking nosocomial infections have evolved from phenotypic to genotypic approaches; most laboratories now depend on pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). We discuss the limitations of current image-based genotyping methods, including PFGE, and the advantages (including ease of entering data into a database) of using DNA sequence analysis to control MRSA infections in health-care facilities.

EID Shopsin B, Kreiswirth BN. Molecular Epidemiology of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):323-326. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700323
AMA Shopsin B, Kreiswirth BN. Molecular Epidemiology of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):323-326. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700323.
APA Shopsin, B., & Kreiswirth, B. N. (2001). Molecular Epidemiology of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 323-326. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700323.

Increasing Resistance to Vancomycin and Other Glycopeptides in Staphylococcus aureus [PDF - 82 KB - 6 pages]
F. C. Tenover et al.

Strains of Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to glycopeptides have been reported from Japan, the United States, Europe, and the Far East. Although isolates with homogeneous resistance to vancomycin (MICs = 8 µg/mL) continue to be rare, there are increasing reports of strains showing heteroresistance, often with vancomycin MICs in the 1-4 µg/mL range. Most isolates with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin appear to have developed from preexisting methicillin-resistant S. aureus infections. Many of the isolates with reduced susceptibility to glycopeptides have been associated with therapeutic failures with vancomycin. Although nosocomial spread of the vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) strains has not been observed in U.S. hospitals, spread of VISA strains has apparently occurred in Japan. Broth microdilution tests held a full 24 hours are optimal for detecting resistance in the laboratory; however, methods for detecting heteroresistant strains are still in flux. Disk-diffusion tests, including the Stokes method, do not detect VISA strains. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other groups have issued recommendations regarding appropriate infection control procedures for patients infected with these strains.

EID Tenover FC, Biddle JW, Lancaster MV. Increasing Resistance to Vancomycin and Other Glycopeptides in Staphylococcus aureus. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):327-332. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.070327
AMA Tenover FC, Biddle JW, Lancaster MV. Increasing Resistance to Vancomycin and Other Glycopeptides in Staphylococcus aureus. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):327-332. doi:10.3201/eid0702.070327.
APA Tenover, F. C., Biddle, J. W., & Lancaster, M. V. (2001). Increasing Resistance to Vancomycin and Other Glycopeptides in Staphylococcus aureus. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 327-332. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.070327.

Controversies about Extended-Spectrum and AmpC Beta-Lactamases [PDF - 54 KB - 4 pages]
K. S. Thomson

Many clinical laboratories have problems detecting extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) and plasmid-mediated AmpC beta-lactamases. Confusion exists about the importance of these resistance mechanisms, optimal test methods, and appropriate reporting conventions. Failure to detect these enzymes has contributed to their uncontrolled spread and sometimes to therapeutic failures. Although National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards recommendations exist for detecting ESBL-producing isolates of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp., no recommendations exist for detecting ESBLs in other organisms or for detecting plasmid-mediated AmpC beta-lactamases in any organisms. Clinical laboratories need to have adequate funding, equipment, and expertise to provide a rapid and clinically relevant antibiotic testing service in centers where these resistance mechanisms are encountered.

EID Thomson KS. Controversies about Extended-Spectrum and AmpC Beta-Lactamases. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):333-336. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700333
AMA Thomson KS. Controversies about Extended-Spectrum and AmpC Beta-Lactamases. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):333-336. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700333.
APA Thomson, K. S. (2001). Controversies about Extended-Spectrum and AmpC Beta-Lactamases. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 333-336. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700333.

Emerging Mechanisms of Fluoroquinolone Resistance [PDF - 55 KB - 5 pages]
D. C. Hooper

Broad use of fluoroquinolones has been followed by emergence of resistance, which has been due mainly to chromosomal mutations in genes encoding the subunits of the drugs' target enzymes, DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, and in genes that affect the expression of diffusion channels in the outer membrane and multidrug-resistance efflux systems. Resistance emerged first in species in which single mutations were sufficient to cause clinically important levels of resistance (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Subsequently, however, resistance has emerged in bacteria such as Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, in which multiple mutations are required to generate clinically important resistance. In these circumstances, the additional epidemiologic factors of drug use in animals and human-to-human spread appear to have contributed. Resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae, which is currently low, will require close monitoring as fluoroquinolones are used more extensively for treating respiratory tract infections.

EID Hooper DC. Emerging Mechanisms of Fluoroquinolone Resistance. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):337-341. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700337
AMA Hooper DC. Emerging Mechanisms of Fluoroquinolone Resistance. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):337-341. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700337.
APA Hooper, D. C. (2001). Emerging Mechanisms of Fluoroquinolone Resistance. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 337-341. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700337.

Engineering out the Risk of Infection with Urinary Catheters [PDF - 164 KB - 6 pages]
D. G. Maki and P. A. Tambyah

Catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) is the most common nosocomial infection. Each year, more than 1 million patients in U.S. acute-care hospitals and extended-care facilities acquire such an infection; the risk with short-term catheterization is 5% per day. CAUTI is the second most common cause of nosocomial bloodstream infection, and studies suggest that patients with CAUTI have an increased institutional death rate, unrelated to the development of urosepsis. Novel urinary catheters impregnated with nitrofurazone or minocycline and rifampin or coated with a silver alloy-hydrogel exhibit antiinfective surface activity that significantly reduces the risk of CAUTI for short-term catheterizations not exceeding 2-3 weeks.

EID Maki DG, Tambyah PA. Engineering out the Risk of Infection with Urinary Catheters. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):342-347. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700342
AMA Maki DG, Tambyah PA. Engineering out the Risk of Infection with Urinary Catheters. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):342-347. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700342.
APA Maki, D. G., & Tambyah, P. A. (2001). Engineering out the Risk of Infection with Urinary Catheters. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 342-347. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700342.

New Disinfection and Sterilization Methods [PDF - 62 KB - 6 pages]
W. A. Rutala and D. J. Weber

New disinfection methods include a persistent antimicrobial-drug coating that can be applied to inanimate and animate objects (Surfacine), a high-level disinfectant with reduced exposure time (ortho-phthalaldehyde), and an antimicrobial drug that can be applied to animate and inanimate objects (superoxidized water). New sterilization methods include a chemical sterilization process for endoscopes that integrates cleaning (Endoclens), a rapid (4- hour) readout biological indicator for ethylene oxide sterilization (Attest), and a hydrogen peroxide plasma sterilizer that has a shorter cycle time and improved efficacy (Sterrad 50).

EID Rutala WA, Weber DJ. New Disinfection and Sterilization Methods. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):348-353. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700348
AMA Rutala WA, Weber DJ. New Disinfection and Sterilization Methods. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):348-353. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700348.
APA Rutala, W. A., & Weber, D. J. (2001). New Disinfection and Sterilization Methods. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 348-353. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700348.

Engineering Infection Control through Facility Design [PDF - 54 KB - 4 pages]
G. A. Noskin and L. R. Peterson

Many medical centers have modified their facility design to provide a safer environment for patients. From an infection control perspective, the primary objective of hospital design is to place the patient at no risk for infection while hospitalized. We describe historical landmarks about hospital design, modern facility design, and specific designs to prevent acquisition and spread of infections such as tuberculosis and aspergillosis.

EID Noskin GA, Peterson LR. Engineering Infection Control through Facility Design. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):354-357. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700354
AMA Noskin GA, Peterson LR. Engineering Infection Control through Facility Design. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):354-357. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700354.
APA Noskin, G. A., & Peterson, L. R. (2001). Engineering Infection Control through Facility Design. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 354-357. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700354.

Can Managed Health Care Help Manage Health-Care-Associated Infections? [PDF - 63 KB - 5 pages]
R. Platt and B. Caldwell

Managed-care organizations have a unique opportunity, still largely unrealized, to collaborate with health-care providers and epidemiologists to prevent health care-associated infections. Several attributes make these organizations logical collaborators for infection control programs: they have responsibility for defined populations of enrollees and for their overall health, including preventive care; they possess unique data resources about their members and their care; and they are able to make systemwide changes in care. Health-care associated infections merit the attention and effort of managed-care organizations because these infections are common, incur substantial illness and costs, and can be effectively prevented by using methods that are unevenly applied in different health-care settings. Both national and local discussions will be required to enable the most effective and efficient collaborations between managed care organizations and health-care epidemiologists. It will be important to articulate clear goals and standards that can be readily understood and widely adopted.

EID Platt R, Caldwell B. Can Managed Health Care Help Manage Health-Care-Associated Infections?. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):358-362. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700358
AMA Platt R, Caldwell B. Can Managed Health Care Help Manage Health-Care-Associated Infections?. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):358-362. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700358.
APA Platt, R., & Caldwell, B. (2001). Can Managed Health Care Help Manage Health-Care-Associated Infections?. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 358-362. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700358.

Health-Care Quality Promotion through Infection Prevention: Beyond 2000 [PDF - 46 KB - 4 pages]
J. Gerberding

Health-care value purchasing, complex health-care systems, and information technology are the three most important change drivers influencing the interrelated themes of the 4th decennial conference: accountability, quality promotion through infection prevention across the health-care delivery system, and medical informatics. Among the change drivers influencing themes of future conferences may be a societal mandate for health promotion and health-care access for all.

EID Gerberding J. Health-Care Quality Promotion through Infection Prevention: Beyond 2000. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):363-366. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700363
AMA Gerberding J. Health-Care Quality Promotion through Infection Prevention: Beyond 2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):363-366. doi:10.3201/eid0702.700363.
APA Gerberding, J. (2001). Health-Care Quality Promotion through Infection Prevention: Beyond 2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 363-366. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700363.
Volume 7, Number 2—April 2001 - Continued

About the Cover

Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis (1818-65) [PDF - 56 KB - 1 page]
P. Potter
EID Potter P. Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis (1818-65). Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):368. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.ac0702
AMA Potter P. Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis (1818-65). Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2001;7(2):368. doi:10.3201/eid0702.ac0702.
APA Potter, P. (2001). Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis (1818-65). Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(2), 368. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.ac0702.
Page created: May 29, 2012
Page updated: May 29, 2012
Page reviewed: May 29, 2012
The conclusions, findings, and opinions expressed by authors contributing to this journal do not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Public Health Service, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or the authors' affiliated institutions. Use of trade names is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by any of the groups named above.
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